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STORY-TELLING 

LESSONS 

BBNRY EDWARB TRALLE 




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JUDSON TRAINING MANUALS 

FOR THE SCHOOL OF THE CHURCH 



EDITED BY 

W. EDWARD RAFFETY, Ph. D. 

HENRY EDWARD TRALLE, Th. D. 

WILLIAM E. CHALMERS, D. D. 



STORY -TELLING 
LESSONS 



By 
HENRY EDWARD TRALLE. M. A.. Th. D. 



PHILADELPHIA 

THE JUDSON PRESS 

BOSTON CHICAGO ST. LOUIS LOS ANGELES 

KANSAS CITY SEATTLE TORONTO 






COPYRIGHT, 192I, BY 

GILBERT N. BRINK, Secretary 



APR K. (921 

©Ci,A6il.702 



^ 



FOREWORD 



This volume is one in a series of texts in religious 
education known as the " Judson Training Manuals for 
the School of the Church." 

These manuals are arranged in three groups, namely, 
general, departmental, and parent-training. The gen- 
eral group includes vital teaching, story-telling, church- 
school buildings, expression through worship, hand- 
work, community service, educational leadership, appre- 
ciation of the Bible, and kindred worth while themes in 
the field of religious education. The departmental group 
covers courses for every department of the school of the 
church — Cradle Roll, Beginners', Primary, Junior, etc. 
The parent-training manuals emphasize religion in the 
home, and the necessity of training for the God-given, 
heaven-blessed privilege of parenthood. 

It is the aim of these manuals to popularize the as- 
sured results of the best psychology and pedagogy, 
and to make them the willing and efficient servants of 
all workers in the school of the church. 

Both the editors and the writers want these books 
" to live where the people live," and to be of real value 
to those forward-looking folks destined to be the lead- 
ers in religious education. 

To this end, each course will be (1) simple in lan- 
guage; (2) accurate in statement; (3) sound in psy- 
chology ; (4) vital in pedagogy ; (5) concrete in treat- 



Foreword 



ment; (6) practical in purpose; and (7) spiritual in 
tone. 

This book on " Story-Telling Lessons " will be wel- 
comed by all teachers, preachers, and parents. It is 
the simplest and sanest presentation of this most 
valuable form of teaching. 

It puts story-telling artistry upon the market in 
attractive fashion. The book is packed full of teaching 
values. 

Doctor Tralle, the author, is a master in religious 
education. He has a rare combination of high-grade 
scholarship and ability to put truth in virile, every- 
day English. 

In Chapter I, he handcuffs the reader's interest and 
holds it captive to the end. 

W. Edward Raffety. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PACK 

I. Learning Story-Telling 1 

11. Telling the Story 11 

III. Impersonation in Story-Telling 23 

IV. Form of the Story 33 

V. Parts of the Story 44 

VI. Definition of the Story 56 

VII. Types of Stories 66 

VIII. Grading of Stories 76 

IX. Testing and Studying Stories 87 

X. Classifying Stories 97 



CHAPTER I 
LEARNING STORY-TELLING 

No, story-tellers are not born. They are made. Of 
course some are more easily made than others, chiefly 
for the reason that they were more fortunate in their 
early environment and unconscious training. Fortunate 
are those individuals who were taught, early in life, to 
see clearly and to feel deeply, and then to get others to 
see and feel what they themselves have seen and felt. 
They become the best story-tellers. 

HOW LEARN STORY-TELLING 

Anyone of average ability may become an efficient 
story-teller if he is willing to pay the price in intelligent, 
persistent effort, under competent direction. Some 
specific suggestions are here presented. 

1. Study Principles of Story-telling 

This book is an attempt to present the fundamental, 
psychological principles of story -telling, with practical 
suggestions regarding the art of story-telling, and to do 
this in a fresh, stimulating way. The author is greatly 
indebted to the story-tellers whom he has heard and whose 
books he has read, but at the same time he feels that he 
is not presumptuous in taking issue with some of their 
statements and in advancing some new view-points, since 
he has had twelve years' experience in teaching classes in 

1 



Story-Telling Lessons 



story-telling in college and training-school and in telling 
stories to a variety of audiences in various sections of our 
country. 

Some of the best books, dealing with the principles and 
the art of story-telling, are the following : '' The Use of 
the Story in Religious Education," Eggleston ; " The Art 
of the Story. Teller," Shedlock ; " Educating by Story- 
Telling," Gather; "For the Story-Teller," Bailey; 
" Manual of Stories/' Forbush ; " Story -Telling in School 
and Home," Partridge ; " Stories and Story-Telling," St. 
John; "How to Tell Stories to Children," Bryant; 
"Stories and Story-Telling," Keyes; "Story-Telling," 
Lyman ; " Telling Bible Stories," Houghton ; " Some 
Great Stories and How to Tell Them," Wyche; "Chil- 
dren's Stories and How to Tell Them," Esenwein and 
Stockard ; " Story -Telling for Upper Grade Teachers," 
Cross and Statler. 

Of course no book, or books, ever can take the place 
of the living teacher, and always it is advisable to study 
story-telling under a good teacher, if this is possible, in 
addition to reading the books. At the same time, it is 
possible to learn story-telling without a teacher, through 
the reading of the books and by persistent practice. 

2. Read Many Good Stories 

Unfortunately, there are not many books of stories 
which conform to the fundamental principles of good 
story-telling, but at the same time there are a number 
of books which present fairly good examples. It is ad- 
visable to read a great number of these stories, and to 
read them critically, in connection with a study of the 
basic principles. 



Learning Story-Telling 



Some of the best examples of story-telling may be 
here indicated. Some representative books of stories are 
the following : " For the Children's Hour," Baile> and 
Lewis ; " The Golden Spears," Leamy ; " Stories to Tell 
Children," Bryant; *' Golden Windows," Richards; '' Old 
Stories of the East," Baldwin; "Tell Me a True Story," 
Stewart; ''Blue Fairy Book," Lang; "Descriptive 
Stories for All the Year," Burnham ; " Fairy Tales a 
Child Can. Read and Act," Nixon; "Five Minute 
Stories," Richards ; " Story-Tell Lib," Slosson ; " Ethics 
for Children," Cabot ; " Worth While Stories for Every 
Day," Evans., A book that contains a considerable quan- 
tity and variety of story materials, though the form in 
which the stories are presented cannot be regarded as at 
all ideal, is " World Stories Retold," by Sly. 

3. Hear Expert Story-tellers 

Valuable suggestions may be had from listening to 
experienced story-tellers. It is advisable, moreover, to 
hear as many different story-tellers as possible, since 
there will be less likelihood of imitation. 

As the student listens to story-telling, he should give 
himself up to its lure, listening attentively and sym- 
pathetically. Then he should carefully analyze the story- 
telling to which he has listened in the light of his study 
of the fundamental principles of good story-telling. 

4. Practice Story-telling Persistently 

One of my students, Jane Willis, was asked to tell a 
story in class for criticism, early In the course, and she 
reluctantly agreed to do so. 



4 Story-Telling Lessons 

When she came to the telling of the story, she was 
greatly embarrassed, and gave us about the poorest ex- 
ample of story-telling I had ever heard. I made a few 
suggestions as to how she might improve her story-telling, 
and asked her to tell the story again, at the next meeting 
of the class. I said, " You will do better next time." 

The next time she did a little better, but seemed 
frightened, and was evidently discouraged. I said to 
her : *' Your chief difficulty is lack of self-assurance. 
Try to forget yourself. See what is going on in your 
story. Lose yourself in it. Now, try that story again, 
the next time we meet." She said : " Oh, I cannot do 
it. I just cannot tell a story." I saw that she was 
about to cry, and said nothing more to her at the time. 

At the close of the class she came to me, saying, " I 
feel that I am carrying too much work in the school, and 
I am going to drop story-telling." I said, "You may 
drop anything else, but you are not going to drop story- 
telling." She said, " But I can never learn to tell a 
story." I said, " Yes, you can. Just make up your mind 
that you will, and stick to it.'* 

I feared that she might not be present at the next 
meeting of the class, but she was there. Two weeks 
later she told another story in the class, and did better. 
From that time on she steadily improved in her story- 
telling. Toward the end of the course I said, *' I have 
here a clipping from a newspaper which has in it, it seems 
to me, the making of a good story. I should be glad to 
have some member of the class take this clipping and 
work it over, arranging it in good story-telling form, em- 
bodying all the principles of a good story, and then tell 
it in the class." 



Learning Story-Telling 



The first one to volunteer to undertake this difficult 
task was the young woman who had declared she never 
could become a good story-teller. She said, " I can try 
it if you want me to." I said, " You are the very one 
to do this. I had hoped that you, of all the members in 
the class, would be the one that would be willing to 
undertake it." 

At a later meeting of the class, when she had finished 
telling the story that she had prepared, in accordance 
with my request, she was spontaneously and vigorously 
applauded, and one of the other members of the class 
said, " Why, that is the best story we have had in this 
class." 

I said, " You are right ; it is, without question, the 
best example of story-telling we have had in the class." 

" Thank you. Miss Willis." 

WHY LEARN STORY-TELLING 

" Let me tell the stories, and I care not who writes the 
text-books," says G. Stanley Hall; and, more recently, 
William Byron Forbush has said : "Of late we have 
come to take story-telling seriously. It is one oi the 
oldest of arts, and one of the most valuable." 

1. Stories Have Great Cultural Value 

" Stories are the oldest form of transmitted culture, 
and the most formative," says Richard G. Moulton. " Is 
it not delightful to note that learning is bringing the adult 
back to the story?" So says Angela M. Keyes. And 
again, Edward Porter St. John : " The loss of a love 
for stories may be the result of sophistication, but it is 



Story-Telling Lessons 



not an evidence of wisdom. To feel contempt for their 
use reveals ignorance of the art of education." 

Story-telling is as truly cultural, as really educative, 
as is Latin, Greek, mathematics, art, music, or any other 
curriculum subject. There are no choice studies, or sub- 
jects, which have an exclusive cultural value, and the 
number of " cultural subjects " in the curricula of our 
schools has increased amazingly during the last twenty 
years. 

A prominent educator, in a convention address, said: 
*' I could have remained in the university one year longer, 
after having received my A. B. degree, and could have 
taken every subject in the curriculum, which was con- 
structed on the theory that there were a limited number 
of subjects which possessed a peculiar cultural value. 
The graduate was supposed to be educated in general, 
but was not fitted for anything in particular. Now the 
curriculum has been enlarged to such an extent, through 
the addition of a great number and variety of subjects, 
in which are included story-telling and home economics, 
that the taking of all the subjects in the enlarged cur- 
riculum by my daughter, who is just entering this same 
university, would take two hundred forty years out of 
her sweet young life." 

It is gratifying to note that story-telling is coming into 
its own in the schools as a recognized method of making, 
effective important cultural values, and we are coming to 
realize that it has been the story-telling outside the formal 
processes of the schools to which we have been indebted 
for a very considerable proportion of our real education. 
The story has been quietly putting control into life. 

It is a hopeful indication that we are coming more 



Learning Story-Telling 



and more to realize that it is through story-telling artistry 
that we may hope most effectively to pass on to future 
generations the cultural treasures of advancing humanity. 
The story makes effective the highest ideals of life. 

Story-telling appeals strongly to the whole individual 
in the three phases of consciousness, namely, the intellect, 
the emotions, and the will. The story makes a particu- 
larly strong appeal to the imagination, which is the func- 
tion of mind through which we are enabled to obtain a 
sense of reality. Also the story appeals strongly to the 
feelings, or emotions, developing a sense of spiritual 
values, or an appreciation of the best things in life. So 
also, through the story, the will is strengthened most ef- 
fectively, and right choices are developed. 

2. Stories Aid in Understanding History 

The history of every people begins with stories, and, 
in all history, it is the stories that most deeply impress 
us and influence us, and not names, dates, and mere 
facts. It is the stories which may be said to contain and 
to transmit the spiritual values of history, and to make 
them practically effective in posterity. 

It is not their annals that have revealed the peoples of 
the world to us, but their stories. We best know the 
Greeks through the Homeric and other stories, the 
Romans through Plutarch's Lives, and the Hebrews 
through the stories of the Bible ; and these are the three 
peoples who have given to the world its three best gifts, 
namely, culture, law, and religion. 

We did not get our truest and strongest impressions 
of the World War from statistical tables and official re- 
ports, but from stories. The best transcript of Amer- 



8 Story-Telling Lessons 

ican contemporary life is not to be found in census re- 
ports, economic essays, or didactic editorials, but in the 
stories of the novelist, the short-story writer, the moving- 
picture producer, and the skilful story-teller. We learn 
history, and teach it, most effectively when it is done 
dramatically, and not didactically. 

3. Stories Make Education Interesting 

Most of us have been guilty of sitting up the greater 
part of a night in order to finish reading a story, but 
who ever committed such indiscretion in the reading of 
essays, editorials, sermons, or commentaries, unless it 
were a matter of duty or compulsion? And we read 
stories, instead of listening to them, only because there 
are more story-books than there are story-tellers. Any 
story is, of course, far more interesting and effective 
when it is artfully told than when it is read. 

In the story, education assumes the guise of entertain- 
ment, and it accomplishes its more serious purpose most 
effectively because it does entertain incidentally. The 
story does not argue for a "soft pedagogy," but for a 
vital pedagogy. The story makes learning a delight, and 
why should it not be so? 

It is a harmful educational superstition to believe 
that the way to make learning effective is to make it 
difficult. There will remain enough of the difficult for 
Soldier Student, in the educational front line, after Red 
Cross Story has applied all her antiseptics and bandages, 
and has served all her sandwiches and sweets and hot 
drinks. 

A student said to a certain teacher : " I'd come to your 
class just for recreation if I didn't learn a thing, but I 



Learning Story-Telling 



do learn a great deal. I never had any teacher to make 
me think for myself as you do, and to so inspire me to 
better life and service." She was talking to a teacher 
who had learned how to vitalize the teaching period with 
a dramatic telling of appropriate stories. 

4. Story-telling as a Humanizing Process 

It would be difficult to overestimate the value of the 
story as a humanizing and socializing agency. It is a 
cure for false dignity and excessive individualism. It 
gets one out of his own little world into the great, broad 
world of all humanity. It brings one into contact with 
every phase of human life and activity. It leads one to 
become interested in other people, and to become more 
generous, more charitable, more cooperative. 

While the story is accomplishing its socializing effects, 
it is doing the chief thing that we are trying to do in our 
modern education. Indeed, one of our representative 
leaders in religious education, Professor T. G. Soares, 
has defined education as follows : " Education is a scien- 
tifically directed process of progressively developing so- 
cialized personality." 

This socializing of personality is accomplished most 
effectively through the story for the reason that the 
listener has presented to him socialization in action. That 
is, he sees human beings, in the story, behaving toward 
one another as they ought, and so he himself tends to 
behave as he ought toward other individuals through the 
dramatic suggestion of right human relationships in 
action. In case the individual in a story does not behave 
as he should toward other individuals, such behavior is 
made unattractive to the listener. 



10 Story-Telling Lessons 

READING AND DISCUSSION 

1. Discuss the story of Jane Willis. 

2. Quote five sentences from the following references, 
and indicate, in a sentence, your reason for the selection 
made in each case: Keyes, pages 3-12; St. John, Intro- 
duction and Chapter I ; Partridge, pages 3-28 ; Sly, 
Chapter I; Wyche, pages 1-10; Forbush, Chapter I. 

3. Give a brief summary of Chapter XIII in Partridge. 

4. Give a brief summary of Chapter XIII in Forbush. 

5. See discussions of recreational value of stor}^-telling 
in the following: Wyche, pages 31-39; Bryant, pages 19, 
20 ; Forbush, page 4 ; Partridge, page 79. 

6. Note what Henry Ward Beecher did with a story 
on one occasion. See Sly, pages 4, 5. 

7. In considering the socializing value of the story, 
read Partridge, page 73, and Forbush, Chapter XIV. 

8. Tell a story in the presence of someone in whom 
you have confidence, courting frank criticism, and then 
re-tell the story, seeking to profit by the criticisms which 
have been made. The oftener the same story is told, the 
more will the story-teller profit in the telling, and the 
more effective will be the story with others. 

9. Professor Hugh Hartshorne has said, in eflfect, in 
a public lecture, that the function of the religious educator 
is (1) to guide the child in purposeful activity, (2) to 
assist him in social functioning, (3) to control his en- 
vironment, and (4) to aid him in the experiencing of 
God. And he adds that this process of education is best 
facilitated by teaching-stories, which motivate behavior, 
visualize standards of conduct, and rationalize and modify 
experience. Discuss. 



CHAPTER II 
TELLING THE STORY 

However good the story may be in itself, and however 
perfect its form, it must be well told in order to be 
effective. The main thing in story-telling is the telling. 

1. Strive to Appear at Ease 

The appearance of ease in the story-teller tends to give 
the impression of power, of competency, of mastery of 
the situation, and enables the listener to devote his whole 
attention to the story itself. 

(1) Hands and Feet 

The hands should be in repose, at the sides of the body, 
except when used in gesture, in order that they may not 
attract attention. To have the hands in the pockets, to 
hold one with the other, in front or at the back, or to 
hold on to a book, paper, or table, likely will tend to at- 
tract attention to the story-teller rather than to the story. 
Therefore control the hands. 

As to the feet, ordinarily they should be rather close 
together, with one a little in advance of the other, with 
an occasional, but not too frequent, shifting of positions. 
Sometimes, of course,' the action of the story will require 
an altogether different placing of the feet and hands. 
The aim should be to make both the feet and the hands 
as inconspicuous as possible, but sometimes this is best 
accomplished by using them in appropriate gesture. 

11 



12 Story-Telling Lessons 



(2) Direction of the Gaze 

The story-teller should look at his audience, without 
appearing to look at any particular individual, and at 
the same time he should not shift the direction of his gaze 
too frequently, as this indicates lack of self-control, and 
will attract attention to the story-teller. In impersona- 
tion, the story-teller should direct his gaze as would the 
character in the story, and, in changing from one char- 
acter to another, a shifting of the gaze will assist in 
distinguishing between the characters. 

Always, the story-teller should be careful to observe 
the " angle of vision," being careful not to look too far 
to the right or to the left, for the reason that a part of 
the listeners may not be able to see his face or to under- 
stand his words. The angle of vision is about a right 
angle, so the story-teller should not direct his gaze outside 
the fourth of a circle. 

(3) Standing or Sitting 

As a rule, the story-teller should stand in telling a 
story, unless the circumstances make this impracticable, 
as when the group is very small, for the reason that one 
has more freedom for expression when standing than 
when sitting. In telling stories to very small children, it 
may be advisable to remain seated, if the group is small. 

There would seem to he no good reason for assuming, 
as some do, that the ideal situation for good story-telling 
is an evening group in front of an open fire, with only 
the dim light of the fire for illumination, and the story- 
teller seated with the others. Such a situation was 
favorable to story-telling in the olden times simply be- 



Telling the Story 13 



cause it was a situation of relaxation from the toils of 
the day and of freedom from distractions. 

The better situation for good story-telling today is a 
well-lighted, properly ventilated room with the listeners 
comfortably seated and the story-teller standing. 

2. Giving the Impression of Well-being 

The story-teller should appear to be happy. He should 
smile occasionally during the telling of the story, when- 
ever a smile will not contradict the story, and usually 
just before beginning. 

(1) Intentions Are Good 

A happy appearance tends to create the impression 
that the story-teller means well by his audience, indicat- 
ing good will, friendliness, and evokes an attitude favor- 
able to the story-teller and therefore to the story itself. 
An appropriate smile is suggestive of good intentions and 
is indispensable to the best success in story-telling. 

(2) Has Something Good 

The story-teller who looks happy suggests by his ap- 
pearance that his story is a good one, that it will be 
enjoyable, and that it will benefit his listeners. Of course 
the story-teller should not smile excessively. His smile 
should not develop into a chronic grin, but at the same 
time he should realize that it is of the highest importance 
to smile frequently, whenever at all appropriate, that he 
may thus convey the impression, however unconscious 
his listeners may be of it, that he has something good for 
them in his story. Keep Happy Smile in your heart- 
family and as a frequent visitor in your face-family. 



14 Story-Telling Lessons 

3. Realize Vividly the Events 

The story-teller must first realize the events of the 
story, must see each part of the action clearly and vividly, 
if he would get his listeners to see, to feel, and to- will. 
That is, he must appeal strongly to the imagination, com- 
pelling his listeners to see clearly, to image accurately, 
to have a sense of reality. 

(1) Use the Imagination 

In order to appeal to the imagination of the listeners, 
the story-teller must make a right use of his own imag- 
ination. The characters in the story should be very real 
to him. He should be able to see them as actually 
present. He can succeed in doing this by willing to do 
it, by realizing that it is essential to success, by using 
pictures, diagrams, and descriptions, by utilizing all the 
information available. Nothing in story-telling will be 
real to the listeners until it is first real to the story-teller. 

(2) Yield to the Lure 

The story-teller must conscientiously and definitely give 
himself up to the lure of the story if he would succeed 
in entrancing his listeners. He should get into the world 
of the story if he would transport his listeners into its 
world and lead them about at his will. The story-teller 
himself must he first entranced if he would entrance, 
must he lured if he would lure, must he captivated if he 
would captivate. 

He is not undertaking to recall words, or indeed to 
bring anything out of the past into the present, but 
rather he is face to face with actual beings in a new 



Telling the Story 15 

world, and is virtually lost to his actual condition and 
surroundings. Only thus can a story-teller hope to suc- 
ceed. 

4. Memorize Actions Rather than Words 

It is a serious mistake for the story-teller to under- 
take to memorize, verbally, the words of a story. To 
do so will bind his imagination, prevent him from seeing 
the characters in the story, tend to slow up the rate of 
speaking, to induce hesitation and pauses, and likely 
will reduce the telling of the .story to a more or less 
mechanical performance. 

(1) See Pictures 

The story-teller should devote himself tg a clear imag- 
ing of characters, beings, places, actions, and scenes. 
In other words, he should memorize pictures rather than 
words, and should bind all the pictures in all the events 
of the story into a symmetrical and beautiful whole. Too 
much emphasis cannot be placed upon this suggestion. 

Story-tellers are prone, particularly those whose ex- 
perience has been limited, to say, " I have to memorize 
word for word; otherwise I should forget, and could 
not say anything." This is a mistake. 

(2) Trust the Memory 

If the suggestion to image clearly and vividly the 
events of the story is followed, and if the story-teller 
will read the story over and over again, reading it com- 
pletely through each time, and then will undertake simply 
to cause his listeners to see what he sees and to feel what 
he feels, he will find that he will reproduce, unconsciously 



i6 Story-Telling Lessons 

and without effort, the very words of the story, and, if 
he changes the words, these changes will not be material, 
and in some cases actually will be better than those which 
he had in the story as he had read it over repeatedly. 

Occasionally, of course, it will be necessary to memo- 
rize the very words, where there is purposeful repetition 
or where there is dialect, but, even in these cases, it is 
likely that a frequent reading will result in exact repe- 
tition without definite effort to memorize verbally. The 
same will hold good in the case of a story in verse, 
though here more definite effort to memorize verbally 
may be required. 

5. Make Every Word Understood 

The story-teller should speak .with clear, correct, dis- 
tinct utterance, so that every word may be understood 
by every listener, without unnecessary effort. 

(1) Speak Distinctly 

Anyone who has taught story-telling or public speak- 
ing is surprised to find that many individuals cannot 
articulate correctly and distinctly many of the sounds in 
the English language, for the reason that they have not 
been drilled in phonetics at any period of their education. 

It is of the highest importance that the story-teller 
should take training and should develop in himself the 
ability to utter every element of the language distinctly 
and to speak all of them in their various possible com- 
binations. If the listener misses a word, because of in- 
distinct utterance, the whole picture of the event may 
be marred for him, and the story spoiled. Clear, dis- 
tinct utterance, proper articulation and enunciation, is 



Telling the Story 17 

all too rare. The story-teller's art demands of him the 
best possible in this respect. 

(2) Train the Voice 

It is unfortunate when story-telling that is otherwise 
good is marred by harshness in the voice, nasal tones, 
undue loudness, incorrect pronunciation, and other de- 
fects of utterance, all of which attract attention to the 
delivery itself and thus make difficult the hearing, under- 
standing, and appreciation of the story itself. Voice 
culture is a prerequisite for the best story-telling. 

Some are far more fortunate than others in this re- 
gard. The early training and environment has been 
favorable to the development of purity of tone, correct- 
ness of pronunciation, and accuracy of utterance. Many 
have unconsciously acquired incorrect habits of breathing 
and of utterance, and have developed defects in the voice 
which greatly interfere with the best effectiveness in 
story-telling. 

6. Take Care to Introduce the New 

In telling a story, it is highly important to emphasize 
the new as it appears during the progress of the story 
in sentence after sentence. Emphasis should be placed 
upon each idea and word as it occurs for the first time 
in each particular story, in order that the listener's at- 
tention may be attracted particularly to it and that he 
may be assisted in getting its meaning, and therefore a 
realization of the action. 

This introducing of the new may be done through 
appropriate gesture, through stronger stress, through 
facial expression, and through proper modulation of the 



18 Story-Telling Lessons 

voice. Take the following extract from the story of 
" Why the Chimes Rang " : 

" There lived, in a country far away, a boy named 
Pedro, and his little brother. They lived in a little town, 
some miles from a big city. 

" The Christmas season was drawing near, and Pedro 
and his little brother were talking of the beautiful Christ- 
mas celebration held every year in the big city, in the 
big church whose tower could be seen from where they 
lived on the days when the weather was fine. 

** Pedro said, * Mother saw the beautiful celebration 
once, and she says that nobody could ever guess all the 
fine things there are to see and hear. And she says 
that she has heard that the Christ-Child sometimes comes 
down to bless the service.* 

" Little Brother said, ' I wish we could see this beauti- 
ful service this Christmas eve. If we could go, we might 
see the Christ-Child, too.* And Pedro said, ' Yes, and 
we could take a gift for the Christ-Child.' Little Brother 
asked, *Oh, what could we take?' Pedro answered, 
* We could take my little piece of silver that I earned 
and have been saving.' * Oh, that would be fine,' said 
Little Brother." 

The following words are "new" and should be em- 
phasized: Lived, far away, boy, Pedro, brother, little 
town, miles, big city, Christmas, near, talking, celebra- 
tion, big church, tower, seen, weather, fine, mother, says, 
guess, fine things, heard, Christ-Child, bless, we, see, gift, 
what, piece of silver, fine. 

7. Be Physically in Earnest 
The story-teller will be evidently alive. It is not 



Telling the Story 19 



enough that the story-teller be morally in earnest; he 
must be physically in earnest. He must make his ear- 
nestness evident. It is not enough that the story-teller 
be interested, he must manifest his interest. He must 
make it evident to his listeners, through an animated, en- 
thusiastic telling. 

(1) Speak Rapidly 

Too many story-tellers speak too slowly. The rate of 
speech in story-telling should be rapid, on the whole, 
slowing down occasionally when the action of the story 
demands it, and even pausing briefly for emphasis occa- 
sionally. 

It is difficult to speak too rapidly, provided the story- 
teller speaks distinctly and with proper emphasis and 
modulation. Of course, in impersonation, the story- 
teller may occasionally need to speak slowly, if the char- 
acter impersonated is a slow speaker. 

The human mind gets things quickly, and the story- 
teller needs to move rapidly, from word to word and 
from sentence to sentence, that he may sketch his mental 
pictures quickly, else the listeners will get impatient and 
become inattentive, and thus fail to see clearly, and to 
feel and act accordingly. 

(2) Move Quickly 

Quickness of movement indicates life, and life always 
is attractive. A slow-speaking, slow-moving story-teller 
cannot be very interesting and effective. 

Of course, the story-teller should not appear to be 
hurried or worried, should not exhibit symptoms of ner- 
vousness and lack of self-control, but at the same time he 



20 Story-Telling Lessons 

should be mentally alert and physically alive, indicating 
in every movement that he is interested and that he has 
something to tell that is of the highest importance. 

(3) Emphasize Frequently 

This suggestion has to do with force, one element of 
which is loudness. It is possible, of course, for the 
story-teller to make too much noise, but the common 
fault is an excess of quietness. A story-teller cannot 
speak quietly, mildly, without speaking monotonously and 
ineffectively. In the introducing of the new, from sen- 
tence to sentence, from event to event, there should be 
frequent expenditure of extra force and an almost con- 
tinuous variation in the pitch of the tones in meaningful 
modulation. 

(4) Impersonate Correctly 

One of the chief explanations of lack of physical 
earnestness in story-telling is due to the failure of story- 
tellers to tell the story dramatically, with a large use of 
direct discourse and with correct impersonations of the 
various characters in the story. Impersonation will go 
far toward breaking up monotony in story-telling and 
toward a physical earnestness that will demand attention, 
compel interest, aid the imagination, stir the emotions, 
and storm the will. 

(5) Gesture Appropriately 

How often have you seen a story-teller stand or sit 
perfectly still with immobile hands and arms, and with 
fixed features. There seems to have arisen among vol- 
untary, untrained story-tellers an idea that amounts al- 



Telling the Story 21 

most to a superstition, that the story-teller should talk 
quietly and avoid gesture. 

The truth is that the story-teller should make large 
use of gesture, appropriately reenforcing the words and 
the modulation. At the same time also the face should 
be constantly changing in appropriate suggestiveness. 

READING AND DISCUSSION 

Discuss the following extracts from representative 
books on story -telling : 

1. " Every scene in a story should be visualized until it 
is as vivid as a painting on a canvas. It must be studied 
and imagined until it shifts smoothly and rapidly into the 
succeeding one." — Gather. 

2. " When the story has been selected and its message 
defined, the next step toward preparation for telling it 
before the class is that of becoming thoroughly familiar 
with it. This does not imply memorization, for that in- 
volves a loss of the spontaneity that is one of the chief 
charms of story-telling, nor does it involve close attention 
to details, but rather a thorough grasp of the story as 
a whole. Having reached a clean-cut definition of the 
moral of the tale, there must be a clear appreciation of 
the feelings which are to be stirred, and then a mastery 
of the general outlines of the events. If the story has 
strongly impressed one, two or three thoughtful readings 
will usually secure these results." — St. John. 

3. "Such knowledge does not mean memorizing. 
Memorizing utterly destroys the freedom of reminiscence, 
takes away the spontaneity, and substitutes a mastery of 
form for a mastery of essence. It means, rather, a per- 



22 Story-Telling Lessons 

feet grasp of the gist of the story, with sufficient 
famiUarity with its form to determine the manner of its 
telHng. The easiest way to obtain this mastery is, I think, 
to analyze the story into its simplest elements of plot. 
Strip it bare of style, description, interpolation, and find 
out simply what happened.''-. — Bryant. 

4. " Instead of memorizing a whole story, word for 
word, you should come to know it so well that the spirit 
of it is yours.. Become so imbued with the spirit that it 
comes to be a part of yourself — something that no one 
can take from you — something that will not evaporate 
and vanish away with the loss of a mere word. This 
sort of memorizing is more a familiarizing of one's self 
with the author's style than actually reducing any of the 
story elements to memory. By reading the story over 
and over you unconsciously attract to yourself a diction, 
a phrasing that belongs to the author and the piece, that 
just naturally fits into the situations contained in the 
story." — Cross and Statler. 

5. " Before a story can be told, it must be put definitely 
into form for telling. It must be studied. Often it will 
be necessary to know more about the situation than the 
story itself tells. If it is a part of a larger story, the 
whole should be read. The told story must be strong 
in color. The teller's mind must hold it, therefore, in a 
rich content of imagery and feeling so that it may have 
body, and there may be plenty of the raw material out of 
which gesture, attitude, quality of tone, and many other 
more or less unconscious ways of communicating with the 
hearer, of suggesting scene and mood, are formed." — 
Partridge. 



CHAPTER III 
IMPERSONATION IN STORY-TELLING 

The dramatic quality should dominate in the story, 
both in its form and in its actual telling. In helping the 
listener to see vividly the action of the story, and to feel 
its power, the good story-teller will make skilful use of 
voice, face, the whole body. 

REPRESENTING THE CHARACTERS 

The story-teller must be, in turn, all the characters in 
the story, in order that he may make them real to his 
audience. 

1. Action More Effective than Words 

Frequently an emphasis on a syllable in a word or an 
inflection in the voice may be far more effective than the 
word itself, and indeed may even contradict the word. 
The words of the story alone constitute a mere skeleton. 

This skeleton becomes a living, alluring reality when 
touched by the magic of modulation, and illumined by 
the light of facial expression, and propelled by the force 
of appropriate gesture. 

In impersonating the characters of the story, it is not 
meant, of course, that the story-teller will actually ap- 
pear as his characters appear or that he will imitate them 
in every movement and sound, but only that he will 
imitate certain characteristic movements and sounds, by 

23 



24 Story-Telling Lessons 

way of suggestion. The imagination of the hstener will 
do the Fest. 

2. Imitation as an Aid to Imagination 

In telling the story of " The Boys and The Frogs," the 
story-teller should imitate the croaking of the big frog. 
When the listener hears this characteristic sound, he sees 
the frog. He does not see the story-teller at all. The 
story-teller has suddenly become transformed for him 
into a frog, and at the same time he is not conscious 
of the transformation — he only sees the frog. 

It is a mistake, therefore, to contend, as some do, that 
impersonation attracts attention to the story-teller, for, 
as a matter of fact, the result is exactly the opposite. 
The story-teller who would make himself as inconspicu- 
ous as possible must hide behind the characters of the 
story, through a dramatic telling. He must not merely 
tell, but act. The more action in the telling, provided it 
be appropriate action, the more will the attention of the 
listener be attracted from the story-teller to the story. 

In almost every story, there is at least one place where 
the story-teller may appeal strongly to the imagination, 
through the imitation of some characteristic sound or 
action, and thus assist the listeners to image clearly and 
vividly the events. 

In the telling of " The Ugly Duckling,'* for example, 
the story-teller will imitate the quacking of the mother 
duck and of the little ducklings, the mewing of the cat, 
the clucking of the hen, the barking of the dog, etc., and 
will thus bring the ducks and the cat and the hen and 
the dog into the very presence of the child, so that he is 
in the story-world for the time being. 



Impersonation in Story-Telling 25 

The success of the story is dependent on the ability 
of the story-teller to develop in the listeners this sense 
of reality, and this is practically impossible without im- 
personation. The beginner in story-telling may say, " I 
agree that impersonation is desirable, but I do not 
know how, and I think it is better not to try at all than 
to fail at.it." No, .better fail at it than not to try at all. 

Even poor impersonation is better than none. Further- 
more, any story-teller can learn to impersonate success- 
fully if he will determine to do It, and then practice, 
practice, practice. Let him learn from those who do it 
well, and, occasionally, he can take lessons first-hand. 
For instance, he may learn to imitate the croaking of a 
frog by listening to the frog itself, the quacking of a 
duck by listening to a duck, and the dialect of a human 
character by listening to the original. 

3. Relation of Story-telling to Acting 

Some of the writers on story-telling make a superficial 
distinction between story-telling and acting. Good story- 
telling is not essentially different from good acting. 

It is the fundamental aim of both the story-teller and 
the actor to lend reality to the scenes presented, to create 
the illusion of actuality. Each goes about his task in a 
different way, but both aim at essentially the same thing. 

The story-teller works alone, whereas the actor has 
the assistance of other actors and of stage-settings, 
scenery, etc. The story-teller must play all the parts 
alone, without any make-up or other accessories. He 
is his own stage-manager, and must compel his audience 
to create all the scenery as he proceeds. 

The story-teller impersonates only partially and imi- 



26 Story 'Telling Lessons 

tates only certain characteristic actions, leaving the actual 
creation of the various scenes to the audience, whereas 
the actor leaves little to the creative imagination of the 
audience. In a death scene, for instance, the actor will 
actually fall to the floor, whereas the story-teller will 
only indicate or suggest the falling. 

The story-teller himself does more than the actor, and 
he compels his audience to do more than does the actor. 
His aim is the same as that of the actor, as has been said, 
but his method is the same only up to a certain point. 

In " Worth While Stories for Every Day," by Law- 
ton B. Evans, is the following : " Do not be afraid of 
the dramatic side of narration. Imitate all the sounds 
that belong to the story, such as the winds blowing, the 
thunder rolling, a bear growling, a dog barking, etc. 
Change your voice to meet the requirements of youth and 
age. Throw yourself heart and soul into the spirit of 
the narrative, and do not be afraid to take all the parts 
and to act each one in turn." 

4. Story-telling and Reading 

I cannot agree with those writers on story-telling who 
warn the story-teller to beware of the method of the 
dramatic " reader." The art of the story-teller is even 
more closely allied to that of the reader than to that of 
the actor. 

Both the reader and the story-teller must play all the 
parts, must appeal strongly to the imagination, must 
create the illusion of present reality, must evoke suitable 
emotions, and must appeal to the will. 

The differences between story-telling and reading are 
differences in aim rather than in method. The pur- 



Impersonation in Story-Telling 27 

pose of the story-teller is more serious than that of the 
reader, the aim of the latter being chiefly entertainment, 
while that of the former is chiefly instruction. The story- 
teller does entertain incidentally, but he aims primarily 
to teach, to bring about a change for the better in the 
life of the listener. 

Good story-telling and good reading are essentially 
one in method. Both are dramatic in form, abounding 
in direct discourse, and both make large use of imper- 
sonation, imitation, gesture. Both are characterized by 
action, action, action. Neither the story-teller nor the 
reader will tie himself to a memoriter method, but will 
seek to see clearly and vividly and to feel strongly, and 
will trust to the moment for the exact phraseology, ex- 
cept in the case of verse and occasional phrases and sen- 
tences. 

5. The Expression of Emotions 

The successful story-teller must, in impersonation, 
properly express the various emotions natural to his 
characters, in order to evoke similar emotions in his 
listeners. The expression of some of the most common 
emotions may be indicated as follows: (1) Fear, con- 
traction of muscles, shrinking away from, and sometimes 
a pushing away with the hands; (2) Anger, frowning 
and a narrowing of the eyes, with redness or whiteness 
in face sometimes; (3) Pain, contraction about the eyes, 
with partial closing; (4) Disgust, drawing down of the 
corners of the mouth, with a turning away sometimes; 
(5) Weariness, relaxation of the whole body; (6) Re- 
morse, approximately a combination of weariness and 
pain; (7) Delight, lighting up of the face, clapping of 



28 Story-Telling Lessons 

hands together, jumping up and down; (8) Pleasure, 
less strong than delight; (9) Wonder, gradual opening 
of the eyes and mouth; (10) Surprise, sudden opening of 
mouth and intaking of breath, with throwing up of hands 
sometimes; (11) Indifference, a raising of the eyebrows 
and a tossing of the head; (12) Haughtiness, a drawing 
up of the body and a looking down upon; (13) Pride, a 
throwing back of the head and a slight contraction about 
the lips; (14) Impatience, a quick frowning and a stamp- 
ing of the foot; (15) Loneliness, a relaxation of the 
features, with a far-away look in the eyes. 

6. Dramatization of the Story 

The dramatizing of the story by the listeners has very 
great educational value in deepening the impression, in 
aiding the memory, and in developing the personality. 

In dramatization, there is a larger measure of imper- 
sonation, and thus a nearer approach to the method of 
the actor, but essentially it is not different from story- 
telling, except that a number of individuals share In the 
telling. 

THE USE OF GESTURE 

" Gesture embraces the various postures and motions 
of the body ; as the head, shoulders, and trunk ; the arms, 
hands, and fingers; the lower limbs and feet. It is the 
language of nature; and hence, like the expression of 
the countenance, is a universal language." 

1. Gestures Must be Free 

The arm and hand must move through ample space, 
and the whole body must yield itself in harmony. The 



Impersonation in Story-Telling 29 



story-teller should seek to avoid " short and strained 
gestures, with stiffness of the body, and doubtful or 
timid movements." Back of the gesture there must be 
confidence, boldness, a letting go of one's self. 

Confidence and success in gesture can come only 
through a cultivation of a willingness to make mistakes, 
to appear ridiculous if need be, and through constant 
practice in connection with a study of the fundamental 
principles involved. 

2. Gestures Must be Timely 

The action in preparation must be so timed that the 
*' stroke is made with that degree of force which suits 
the character of the sentiment and speaker, and occurs on 
the precise syllable to be enforced." 

Timeliness is good articulation in gesture. In uttering 
the sentence, " There he goes," the pointing finger should 
be at the greatest distance from the body at precisely the 
same time the word " there " is heard. 

If the pointing comes just before or just after the 
utterance of the word, attention is attracted to the story- 
teller and his awkwardness. And the result is the same 
if the gestures are " vague and sawing." 

3. Gestures Must be Appropriate 

The action of the story-teller must be suited to the 
action of the story. Gesture must be adapted to the 
situation and the sentiment in the events of the story, 
and must seem to be natural, that it may not attract 
attention to itself, but, at the same time, may strengthen 
the impression. 

Far from appropriate was the gesticulation of the 



30 Story-Telling Lessons 

minister who was accustomed to use only two gestures, 
and who said, " When the roll is called up yonder, I'll be 
there," pointing upward on the first syllable of " yonder," 
and downward on " there." 

Gestures may be classified as follows : 

(1) Designative gestures, which are "used for in- 
dicating or pointing out, and for discriminating between 
different objects." For example, in saying, " Thou art 
the man," point with the index finger on " Thou." In 
saying, " I refer the matter to these friends at my 
right," gesture on " friends " with the right hand supine, 
palm up. 

(2) Descriptive gestures, which serve to describe ob- 
jects and to represent numbers and space. For example, 
in saying, " The snow covered all the ground," gesture on 
" ground " with the outward sweep of the prone hand, 
palm down. 

(3) Assertive gestures, which help to strengthen as- 
sertions. For example, in saying, " God must be obeyed," 
emphasize ** must " by the stretching downward of the 
supine hand. 

(4) Indicative gestures, which help to see clearly and 
to feel appropriately, as placing the hand upon the head 
in distress, putting the finger upon the lips to enjoin 
silence, reaching the hands forward in supplication, drop- 
ping the head in shame, nodding the head in assent or 
salutation, bending the body forward in reverence, start- 
ing in terror, stamping in authority, clenching the hand 
in strong determination, the clenching of both hands in 
vehement declaration, the palms of the hands pressed to- 
gether in adoration, the clasped hands in earnest entreaty, 
the folding of the hands in self-abasement, etc. 



Impersonation in Story-Telling 31 



4. Gestures Must be Graceful 

If gestures are free, timely, and appropriate, they will 
be graceful, being characterized by faciHty, freedom, 
variety, and simplicity. 

The little child is graceful in his gestures, and ex- 
presses himself naturally and appropriately, but, as he 
grows older, he is likely to become self-conscious and 
awkward, by reason of a wrong environment and a 
formal education, and then he must learn to speak prop- 
erly, and to express effectively ideas and emotions with 
face and gestures. 

It is not natural to the average story-teller to be grace- 
ful and effective in gesture, and he will need to make it 
natural for himself by acquiring the fundamental prin- 
ciples and undergoing the necessary practice. This re- 
quires courage, determination, and persistence. It is 
well to practice in front of a mirror. 

READING AND DISCUSSION 

Impersonate, with appropriate gesture, facial expres- 
sion, and modulation of voice, the characters in the fol- 
lowing extracts from stories : 

1. " One day a selfish boy saw a jar of nuts. He put 
his hand into the jar and grasped as many as his hand 
could hold. As the mouth of the jar was small he could 
not pull his hand out, so he became frightened and began 
to cry, ' I can't get my hand out ! ' A boy standing near 
said, * Take only half as many, and you can easily get 
your hand out.' " 

2. " Once a hungry cow came to a manger full of hay. 



32 Story-Telling Lessons 

But a dog was lying there, snarling and barking, and 
would not let the cow come near the hay. The cow 
mooed, * Mr. Dog, you're selfish ; you cannot eat the 
hay yourself, and you will let no one else have any of it.' " 

3. " One day some boys at play were throwing stones 
into a pond at some frogs. At last one old frog peeped 
up out of the water and said, ' Boys, why are you so 
cruel ? ' The boys said, ' We are only having fun ! ' The 
old frog croaked back, * It may be fun for you, but it is 
hard on us.' " 

4. " One morning, the Wind said to the Sun, ' I am 
stronger than you are.' The Sun said, * I know I am 
stronger than you are.' As they were quarreling over 
the question, a traveler came in sight. So they agreed 
to decide the matter by seeing which could first make 
him take off his coat. Then the Wind began blowing, 
blowing as fiercely as he could. He nearly tore off the 
traveler's coat, but the man buttoned his coat up more 
closely about him and the Wind had to give up beaten. 
Then the Sun, clearing away the clouds, shot his hottest 
beams down upon the traveler's back, and he soon threw 
off his coat. Then the Sun said, * Wind, you make more 
noise, but, you see, I am stronger.' " 



CHAPTER IV 
FORM OF THE STORY 

Careful attention needs to be given to the form in 
whicli the story is presented, as well as to the manner 
and method of its telling. 

ACTION AND RAPID MOVEMENT 
NECESSARY 

Always, in the story, through every event, there must 
be " something doing." There is, in the story, little or 
no place for description. " Description is the portrayal 
of concrete objects, material or spiritual, by means of 
language." 

Description is concerned chiefly with things, whereas 
the story is concerned with events; description deals with 
states, whereas the story represents actions; description 
treats details, whereas the story seeks to make a single 
impression; description puts the emphasis upon seeing, 
whereas the story would have us also to do. 

1. Picture Vividly the Action 

Story-telling really is story-showing, and not mere 
telling. Each event in the story must be so presented as 
to form a word picture, with a strong appeal to the imag- 
ination, in order that the listener may form a clear image. 

The action in the story, therefore, must be fully pic- 
tured, and not briefly indicated, as in allusions, analogies, 

33 



34 Story-Telling Lessons 

and most other so-called " illustrations." One story- 
teller, in " The Runaway Pancake," says : " It was a 
funny sight to see a man, and a hen, and a rooster, and 
a duck, and a goose, and a gander, all joining in the 
chase." 

This is an example of bad story-telling. It would be 
far better to take time to picture each of those named 
as joining in the chase and crying, "Stop! Stop! Pan- 
cake ! " so that the listener may see and hear that string 
of chasers, and then it will not be necessary, of course, 
to tell him that it is a funny sight. It will be funny to 
him, without anybody telling him anything, because he 
sees what is going on, and knows for himself tliat it 
is funny. 

2. Employ Chiefly Familiar Terms 

One story-teller, in telling the story of the visit of 
the Wise-men to the baby Jesus, said, to five-year-old 
children, " And the hot sands of the desert crackled 
under the feet of the camels as they journeyed." The 
average child would be puzzled by " desert," '' crackled," 
*' journeyed," and likely would not be able to form any 
mental image at all. Another story-teller used the word 
" regent " in a story for children of about the same age. 

" But," they sometimes object, ** is not the use of un- 
familiar terms in a story a good method of teaching the 
child English?" "Yes, possibly," I should say, "pro- 
vided you do not make the dose too big and strong and 
bitter." The explanation of the detestation of English 
on the part of some children may be explained on the 
assumption that it was given to them in old-fashioned 
" blue mass " doses. 



Form of the Story 35 

In telling folk-tales, it is necessary usually to modern- 
ize them. In " The Runaway Pancake," for instance, it 
will be advisable likely to convert " fireside " into kitchen, 
and to reduce the " seven " hungry children to three. So, 
frequently, in the King James' Version of the Bible, 
modern terms should be substituted for the less familiar 
ones of more than three hundred years ago. 

3. Omit Unnecessary Words and Phrases 

All words and phrases designed to lead the listener to 
see and feel as the story-teller thinks he ought to see and 
feel are to be considered as just so much literary clutter. 
If the events are properly pictured, the listener can be 
trusted to see and feel as he ought, without any outside 
help from the story-teller. 

It is bad story-telling, as a rule, for the story-teller 
to say plainly of anything in the story that it was bad 
or good, funny or sad. Also it is better to omit alto- 
gether from the story all the " Well's " and " So's " and 
" Oh's " and " Children " and " My dear children." 

It is quite safe to assume that the listeners have 
brains, and it is well to understand that they resent the 
patronizing cant so common in story-telling. 

4. Use Simple Language Constructions 

No English can be too correct or too beautiful in the 
story, provided it be simple. Any attempt, however, at 
*' fine writing " will attract attention to the form instead 
of to the truth itself. The sentences in the story usually 
should be short, and always they should yield their mean- 
ing readily. 

One story-teller goes so far astray, in his departure 



36 Story-Telling Lessons 

from directness and simplicity, as to speak of a railroad 
engine as an " iron horse " and a " conscienceless mon- 
ster," and of a boy as " some mother's darling little boy." 
In one version of " The Bamboo Tree," the first para- 
graph should be omitted altogether. This paragraph is 
as follows: "Beneath the gleaming snows of Fuji lay a 
great forest. There many giant trees grew, the fir, the 
pine, the graceful bamboo, and the camellia trees. The 
balmy azaleas and the crinkled iris bloomed in the shade. 
The blue heavens were fleecy with snowy clouds, and 
gentle zephyrs caressed the blossoms and made them 
bow like worshipers before a shrine." 

5. Use Purposeful Repetition Occasionally 

Purposeful repetition aids the memory, assists in the 
forming of clear mental images, facilitates the grasping 
of the significance of the action of the story, and evokes 
suitable emotions. Rhythmical repetition is particularly 
effective with the younger listener, and frequently also 
with adults. 

The prophet Amos, in one of his dramatic lessons, in 
his teaching campaign in Israel, in order to evoke in his 
listeners a sense of impending doom, repeats eight times, 
at the beginning of each of the events of his story, only 
changing the name of the country, the following re- 
frain : " Thus saith Jehovah, * For three transgressions 
of Damascus, and for four, I will not turn away the 
punishment thereof, because,' etc." 

6. Choose the Definite in Preference to the Indefinite 

In good story-telling, there can be no hesitation, no 
alternatives, no probabilities. The story must present, in 



Form of the Story 37 

each event, one clear, positive, definite picture. There 
must be no wavering, no wabbHng, no deliberation. 

The story, therefore, must avoid such expressions as 
" probably," " perhaps," '' it may be so," " as it were," 
" either^or," and " possibly." The story-teller may, in 
the making of the story, hesitate, deliberate, consider, 
weigh, and question, but, when the story is finished, he 
must see certain very definite actions, and must cause the 
listeners to see them as definite and complete, if his story- 
telling is to carry with it the sense of reality and a result 
of effectiveness. 

DIRECT RATHER THAN INDIRECT 
DISCOURSE ESSENTIAL 

In its written form, the good story is characterized by 
many quotation marks, for it abounds in direct dis- 
course, the characters doing their own talking, there be- 
ing a minimum of indirect discourse, wherein the story- 
teller presents in his own words the substance of what is 
said by the characters. 

1. Makes Strong Appeal to the Imagination 

The chief reason for making large use of direct dis- 
course in the story is that it appeals far more strongly 
to the imagination than does indirect discourse. The 
fundamental reason why this is true is that an individual 
seems more real when you look at him than he does 
when you simply hear somebody tell about him. 

In indirect discourse, the story-teller is simply talking 
about the characters in the story ; but in direct discourse, 
the story-teller is more than a talker— he is a stage- 



38 Story-Telling Lessons 

manager, introducting his characters to the audience and 
allowing them to do their own talking. 

2. Presents Teaching as Indirect Suggestion 

Usually, in teaching, indirect suggestion is more ef- 
fective than direct suggestion, for the reason that the re- 
sultant change in the pupil's behavior, or activity, is more 
hidden in the depths of the subconscious, and the indi- 
vidual has a sense of greater freedom, frequently think- 
ing that he is acting wholly on his own initiative. 

So the artful story-teller does not make suggestions 
directly, but rather indirectly through the characters in 
the story, knowing that his listeners might resent sug- 
gestions presented by himself, whereas they are likely to 
receive them when presented by his characters. 

The sayings of Bacon are less familiar to us than those 
of Shakespeare because he talked too much. Shakespeare 
did not say anything. He let his characters do the talk- 
ing, and we are still listening to them. Herein lies the 
key to the understanding of the artistry of the dramatist, 
and it is this ability to allow the characters of the story 
to do the talking that constitutes chiefly the artistry of 
the real story-teller. The trained story-teller knows that 
his listeners will listen far more readily to what his char- 
acters say than to anything he may say himself, and that 
they will accept suggestions from his characters when 
they would not accept them from him. 

3. Relieves the Story-teller of Responsibility 

The value of the indirect suggestion of direct dis- 
course, as contrasted with the direct suggestion of in- 
direct discourse, is emphasized when the teaching of the 



Form of the Story 39 

story is particularly new or unpalatable and must con- 
tend with considerable prejudice in the listeners. Such 
teaching is more likely to get a hearing when it comes 
from one of the characters in the story than if it came 
directly from the teacher, or story-teller. 

IVhcn the unacceptable teaching is thus presented in- 
directly, the story-teller assumes the role of a reporter 
rather than exhorter. He is a fellow traveler and spec- 
tator, and not one of the " sights." If the listener does 
not like what he sees in the story-land, he does not hold 
the story-teller responsible, and thus his vision is not 
dimmed by beclouding emotions, and he is more likely 
to see things as they really are, and not as he thought 
they would be, with the result that the suggestion has a 
better chance to become effective. 



ALL QUESTIONS IN THE STORY ARE 
DEFECTS 

The common practice of injecting questions into the 
story by the story-teller is to be deplored. The time for 
questions is after the story has been told ; and, even then, 
they need to be very carefully managed, and sometimes 
altogether omitted, lest they interfere with the impres- 
sion of the story. 

1. Questions Halt the Action 

The action of the story should move forward swiftly 
and continuously, without interruptions of any kind. 
Questions are in the nature of interruptions, and they 
halt the action of the story, when asked by the story- 
teller. Occasional questions asked by characters in the 



40 Story-Telling Lessons 

story are permissible of course, for they are a part of 
the action of the story itself. 

One story-teller stops her story to ask this superfluous 
question : *' Do you think that this was the first time Re- 
bekah had ever been kind in this way ? " That which this 
question is designed to accomplish could be better at- 
tained through the action of the story itself. If the aim 
of the question is to bring out the fact that kindness to 
her elders must have been developed slowly as a habit, 
then it would be better art to have some one of the family 
say, " Rebekah is always doing something nice for older 
people." 

2. Questions Break the Spell 

The story may be said to weave a spell about the 
listener, and this is necessary to its success. Any inter- 
jecting question breaks this spell, and the story must 
begin over again, for the reason that the question causes 
the Hstener to become conscious of self and of the 
story-teller, whereas the whole attention should be cen- 
tered upon the action of the story itself, if it is to be- 
come real and interesting and effective. 

In the story of David and Goliath, one story-teller 
asks, "What could a boy do against a lion?" Let the 
story itself answer that question, without its being for- 
mally asked. Let the story move right along, showing 
what this boy did against a lion. 

So, again, in the same story, appears the following: 
" Could not God save this boy from the strong man 
as he did save him from the strong beast ? " It is safe 
to assume that the listener has already raised this ques- 
tion with himself, and that he is willing to let the action 



Form of the Story 41 

of the story answer it, if only it will move along, without 
these aggravating interruptions. 

3. Questions Bind the Imagination 

The story lifts the listener up out of his present actual 
world into a new and wonderful story- world, and, just as 
he is beginning really to enjoy himself, the bungling 
story-teller jerks him suddenly back to earth with his in- 
terjected question. 

A boy would act no more fooHshly if he were to jerk 
his kite back to the ground every five minutes, in order 
to make sure that it will fly. The informed story-teller 
can trust the listener to fly, once he is properly started 
on the wings of a controlled imagination. 

4. Questions Distract Fronn the Teaching 

Instead of the question helping the listener to get the 
teaching of the story, as the untrained story-teller mis- 
takenly thinks, it has exactly the opposite effect. Ques- 
tions almost certainly will turn the attention away from 
the story, directing the stream of consciousness upon that 
which is altogether foreign to the purpose of the story. 

If the story-teller's question is rhetorical, it may elicit 
an unexpected answer, and, if he expects an answer, the 
result likely will be a guessing contest, with wrong an- 
swers, while even a correct answer would be in the 
nature of a distraction. Therefore, beware of ques- 
tion-distractions. 

In a New York paper, there was an account of a Long 
Island school-teacher, who, in telling the story of Little 
Red Ridinghood, said, " Suddenly she heard a great noise, 
and what do you suppose she saw standing there gazing 



42 Story-Telling Lessons 

at her and showing all its sharp, white teeth?" One of 
the boys answered, '* Teddy Roosevelt ! " 

5. Questions Violate the Listener's Personality 

It should be recognized that it is a gross violation of a 
fundamental principle of a vital pedagogy to undertake, 
by questions, to interfere with the listener's mental proc- 
esses as he hears the story. Let us trust him, and let 
him alone, allowing him to get his own impressions from 
the story — to see and feel and do as he pleases. 

If the story contains a good teaching, if the events are 
arranged in logical order, with suitable beginning and 
ending, if it abounds in rapid action, and is skilfully told, 
it will hold the attention and will make its own impres- 
sion, and any questioning of the listener must be re- 
garded as a species of impertinent interference. 

READING AND DISCUSSION 

1. Re-write the following, taken from a primary quar- 
terly : ** Our heavenly Father showed his great love for 
us by giving us Jesus as his present to the world, and 
because he was such a beautiful gift and the people were 
so happy about it, they gave presents to each other. Did 
you find pictures of any people who praised God for 
him in their churches? Have any of you a new little 
baby brother or sister in your home? Did anyone send 
or bring a present to the baby? The men about whom 
I want to tell you brought presents to the little baby 
Jesus. They came a long, long journey to give their 
presents to him. These men were not related to the 
baby, nor did they know Mary and Joseph. How do you 



Form of the Story 43 

suppose they found out that the wonderful Christ-Child 
had come? They lived very far away from the town of 
Bethlehem, where he was born, and there was no way 
to send telegrams in those days, nor did anyone write 
them a letter announcing his birth." 

2. Criticize, in the light of the principles set forth in 
this chapter, at least five sentences from five stories. 

3. Re-write the following extract from a book of 
stories : " Children, do you suppose these two had any 
work to do ? Would you be happy if you played all day 
long? I think not, for 'tis better to feel that there is 
something for each to do. God gave this first man and 
woman some work, and what do you think it was ? Why, 
he told them he wished them to take care of the garden, 
and they must have enjoyed doing this. Perhaps they 
brought water to give the thirsty plants a drink, picked 
off the withered petals from the flowers, and trained the 
vines to run over the trees. Then when they wanted to 
eat, they had only to gather the fruits and they had a very 
nice breakfast or dinner without any trouble of cook- 
ing. And at night, where do you think they slept? 
They had no house, you know, and no bed, but per- 
haps they piled up some leaves beneath a large tree 
and there they rested as well as if it had been the soft- 
est kind of bed." 



CHAPTER V 
PARTS OF THE STORY 

Every story is made up of a beginning, a series of 
events, and an ending. 

EVENTS 

The bulk of the story, all except a brief beginning 
and a briefer ending, is composed of an orderly succes- 
sion of events, in the last of which is the climax. 

1. The Events Are the Parts of the Action 

An event is a part of the action of the story, that is, 
one of the significant things which occurred. It is some- 
thing that took place, that is, a scene which helps to make 
the impression when the climax is reached. The skilful 
story-teller will learn to break up a story into its parts, 
or events, and to name them, much as he would name 
the " heads " of a speech. Indeed, the story, in itself, is 
a speech. 

Take the familiar " The Ugly Duckling " as an ex- 
ample. This story, as usually told, may be divided into 
nine events, namely, (1) The hatching of the egg, (2) 
The mother's emotion, (3) Attitude of brothers and sis- 
ters, (4) Flight from home, (5) Disdain of the dog, 
(6) Ridicule of cat and hen, (7) Lonely and sad during 
the winter, (8) Experiences appreciation for the first 
time, (9) Learns that he is a swan, and is happy. 
44 



Parts of the Story 45 

2. Orderly Succession of Events is Essential 

Much depends on the order in which the events are 
arranged if the story is to be effective. In " The Ugly 
Duckling," for instance, the events are so arranged as to 
make a single definite impression and to teach a lesson 
in self-respect — patient waiting for recognition. 

Let events one and eight exchange places, and the story 
is spoiled, for, in that case, we should see the ugly duck- 
ling appreciated before he is hatched, whereas we must 
see the hatching of the egg first, and must realize that 
this duckhng is different from the others. Then we must 
view him in his vicissitudes and must realize that he is 
unappreciated and mistreated, and, later, we must rejoice 
with him when he is understood and appreciated, if the 
story is to be effective. 

If, however, events five and six were to be exchanged, 
there would be no serious injury to the story, for both 
are designed to assist us in realizing the sad plight of 
the unappreciated duckling, and to prepare us for the 
appreciation which comes later in the story. 

3. The Last Event is Most Important 

It is the last event in any story that is the most im- 
portant, because it is the last of the events that justifies 
all that has gone before, and that brings out the sig- 
nificance of all the preceding events. 

It is a mistake to think of the climax as one of the parts 
of the story. It is rather that place in the story, in the 
latter part of the last event, where the point is made, and 
the truth, or lesson, is taught. Usually, the climax of 
the story is more effective when it brings out something 



46 Story-Telling Lessons 

that has been held back, and evokes the emotion of sur- 
prise or wonder. 

4. Number of Events is Not Fixed 

There is not a fixed number of events that every story 
must possess. There may be only three events, or there 
may be thirty-three. The number of events will depend 
on the materials of the story, the literary type, and the 
nature of the teaching. Indeed, in some cases, the same 
story may be quite as effective with one or two events 
more or less, as in " The Ugly Duckling." 

In this story, events one to seven inclusive picture the 
unfortunate condition of the hero, and enable the child 
to sympathize with him in his sufferings, and the last 
two events picture the contrasting appreciation and hap- 
piness, and enable the child to rejoice in the happy out- 
come, and, at the same time, unconsciously to get the 
teaching. 

It is manifest that the first seven events might be re- 
duced to six, or even five, or that the number might be 
increased to eight, by the introduction of another event 
showing the ridicule of a cow, for instance, without 
materially affecting the story's value. 

5. Each Event Suggests a Mind Picture 

No story can succeed unless it makes a strong appeal 
to the imagination of the listener. It must lead the 
listener to image one occurrence after another, and then, 
when the climax is reached, to see the blending of all 
these pictures in one mental image. The vividness of 
this picture will be the measure of the success of the 
story. 



Parts of the Story 47 



6. The Method of Arranging the Events is Called the 
Plot 

It has been suggested that there are three principal 
types of plot, or plan of construction, in the making of 
a story, namely, the one-hero plot, the two-hero plot, 
and the three-hero plot. 

(1) One-hero Plot 

In a story with this plan of construction, there is a 
" single line of sequence," all the action centering in the 
one individual, as in '' The Ugly Duckling." A variation 
of this type is the *' cumulative plan," where there are 
** repetitions and added incidents," as in " The Runaway 
Pancake." 

(2) Two-hero Plot 

In a story with this plan of construction, there are 
" two contrasting courses of action placed side by side," 
as in *' Diamonds and Toads," and the impression comes 
from the contrast between the actions of the two indi- 
viduals, rather than from the contrast between different 
actions, or experiences, of the same individual, as in the 
case of the story with the one-hero plot. 

(3) Three-hero Plot 

In the story with the three-hero plot, there is a " three- 
parallel line "of action, where there are three contrasting 
courses of action as in " Boots and His Brothers." The 
point of the story is made through the contrasting actions 
of the different individuals. This plan of construction is 
effective with younger students. 



48 Story-Telling Lessons 

BEGINNING 

Every story needs a beginning, or introduction, preced- 
ing the first event. The nature of this beginning, and 
its handling by the story-teller, will very materially deter- 
mine the success or failure of the story. 

1. Its Purpose 

Jhe purpose of the beginning of the story may be said 
to be threefold. 

(1) To Get Attention 

It is important, at the start, to get attention, to focus 
the consciousness of the listener upon the story. This is 
done through a proper beginning form, and also through 
the method of its delivery by the story-teller — that is, 
through the proper use of the yoice and of gesture. 

(2) To Arouse Interest 

It is the province of the beginning also to arouse in- 
terest in the story itself, through a point of contact with 
the life of the listener, and the awakening of a curiosity 
and an expectation of something desirable to come. 

(3) To Create an Atmosphere 

A good beginning also will create a suitable atmosphere 
for the story, will induce a mood favorable to the impres- 
sion of the story, will awaken an expectation In harmony 
with the story. 

In some cases, the beginning may even give a hint as 
to the nature of the action of the story. However, it is 
important that the beginning shall not contain any of the 



Parts of the Story 49 

action of the story, and that it shall not reveal in advance 
the point of the story, but that it shall leave it to the 
listener to discover for himself the meanings as they are 
shown in the events in the development of the story. The 
experience of discovery is a delightful one. 

2. Its Length 

The beginning should be very short. Usually a sen- 
tence is sufficient. Some things frequently found in be- 
ginnings should be left out. 

(1) Descriptions 

There should be very little description in the story, 
and that which is necessary should appear in the events, 
and not in the begiiming. Many stories as they are 
found in the books and periodicals are sadly marred by 
long descriptions at the beginning, before interest is 
aroused in the action of the story itself. 

(2) Adjectives 

There is scarcely any place at all for adjectives in the 
story, and certainly not in the beginning. The listener 
should have the pleasure of finding out for himself 
whether the hero is good or bad, happy or unhappy, etc. 
Let the story itself unfold to the listener the action, and 
let him form his own judgments and experience his own 
emotions. 

(3) Questions 

The too common practice of introducing into the begin- 
ning questions directed at the listener, with the purpose 
of connecting the present story with an earlier story or 



50 Story-Telling Lessons 

with some other experience in his Hfe, is bad story-telling. 
Let the story itself do this. 

Questions asked for the purpose of getting attention 
also are bad, for the reason that they actually serve rather 
as distractions. It is better to get right into the story 
itself as soon as possible, and to let the story do its own 
explaining and make its own impression. The story can 
be trusted to do this. 

3. Its Contents 

There is no absolute requirement as to what the be- 
ginning shall contain, but usually there are found here 
three things. 

(1) Individuals 

The individuals with whom the action of the story 
begins are here introduced. The " individual " may be 
a human being, a lower animal, or an inanimafe object. 
This individual may be the hero or heroine of the story, 
and sometimes other individuals are introduced later, in 
the story itself. The essential is that the beginning shall 
introduce someone with whom the story itself may 
start, someone around whom the action will center. 

(2) Place 

It is essential also, in the beginning, that the place 
from which the action of the story starts shall be Intro- 
duced. In " The Ugly Duckling,'* for instance, it Is " nest 
under a mother duck " ; In " The Runaway Pancake," it 
is " pan " and '' fireside," or kitchen ; and, in " The Little 
Red Hen,'* it is "house in the wood" and "den In the 
rocks.'* 



Parts of the Story 51 



(3) Time 

The time of the commencement of the story is intro- 
duced, in the beginning. Sometimes the exact date is 
given or the story is specifically connected with some 
known event—*' In the year that King Uzziah died," in 
the story of Isaiah's vision; " In the winter of 1776," in 
the story of Washington crossing the Delaware. 

Frequently an indefinite time is indicated, as " Once," 
" One time," ** Once upon a time," *' There was a time," 
" One day," " One night," " In the long ago," " Once, 
nobody knows just when." 

Occasionally, an indefinite time is assumed, implied, 
taken for granted, as " There was," " Three bears Hved," 
*' A pancake was frying for supper," *' Some eggs were 
in a nice, warm nest under a mother duck." 

4. Its Form 

In form, the beginning of the story should be simple, 
easy, natural. There is no place here for '' fine writing," 
which will attract attention to itself. The language, of 
course, should be correct, except sometimes in quotations, 
and it may be beautiful, but it should not be ornate or 
stilted. This would be true of, the story that is to be 
read, and it is particularly true of the story that is to 
be told. 

The beginning also should be fresh, sincere, out of the 
ordinary. For example, the stereotyped " Once upon a 
time " usually should be avoided. Occasionally, the be- 
ginning will consist of direct discourse, the words of 
one of the individuals of the story. This informal 
method of introduction sometimes is very effective. 



52 Story-Telling Lessons 

ENDING 

As soon as the story reaches the cHmax, at the end of 
the last event, it must be brought quickly to a conclusion 
with a suitable ending. 

1. Ending Must be Short 

The shorter the ending, the better. Usually a single 
sentence is sufficient. Interest is at its height when the 
story reaches the climax, and the close must come very 
quickly, else there will be interference with the impres- 
sion. 

The purpose of an ending is to slow down the stream 
of consciousness, that attention may be turned back upon 
the story itself, which is then viewed as a whole, with 
the result that it yields to the listener the full benefit of its 
teaching. 

2. Does Not Explain the Story 

If the story itself has not already explained itself, 
when it reaches the climax, then it is too late to explain 
the story in an ending. If the story is good in its form, 
and is properly told, the listener will get the right impres- 
sion, whatever his age, without any explanation of any 
kind in the ending, and, if he does not get it from the 
story itself, it is certain that he will not get it from any 
amount of explaining. Moreover, the listener resents 
being regarded as an ignoramus. 

The " tacked on moral," therefore, is inadvisable. A 
certain story-teller sadly blunders when he ends a story 
of the death of Thomas Hovenden with : " Such a pic- 
ture of unselfishness, heroism, and Christlike abandon 



Parts of the Story 53 

to save a child, is a picture to be admired in heaven — a 
picture worthy to hang in a palace." 

Now, if this story really does teach heroism, then the 
listener already has this idea, long before the story- 
teller can get to his superfluous '* preachiness." 

3. Adds Nothing to the Story 

The ending must not contain any addition to the story, 
any new event or any new idea, because anything new 
in the ending will serve as a distraction, and interfere 
seriously with the impression of the story. In other 
words, it is not the province of the ending of the story 
to say anything, but only to bring to a close that which 
already has been said in the story itself. 

4. Measurably Satisfies Curiosity 

In the climax, the story is brought to a point, something 
has turned out, and curiosity is measurably satisfied, with 
the result that the listener now may view the story as a 
completed whole, and may gain its full teaching. 

And this is absolutely necessary to the success of the 
story, for, so long as curiosity is unsatisfied, the atten- 
tion is directed forward and not backward, and the 
listener is expecting something more to come, instead of 
looking at and appreciating that which already has come. 

5. Is Consistent With the Story 

The ending of the story must seem to be consistent 
with all that has preceded. Even in the climax, while the 
outcome may have been surprising, at the same time it 
was plausible, things might have reasonably turned out 
just that way, and now, in the ending, there must be no 



54 Story-Telling Lessons 

surprises of any kind, and certainly no contradictions, for 
this would serve as a distraction, and thus interfere 
with the desired impression. 

6. May Consist of Words of the Hero 

Frequently a story may appropriately end with direct 
discourse, and may consist of the words of the hero 
himself. When " The Runaway Pancake," for instance, 
has reached the climax with the wish of the pancake, as 
he is swallowed by the pig, that he had stayed at home to 
be eaten by the hungry children instead, the story might 
be made to end felicitously with the pancake saying, 
** But this is the end of me." 

The occasional use of direct discourse, in an ending, 
will be promotive of variety and art and effectiveness, 
but probably, as a rule, the ending should be in indirect 
discourse, in the words of the story-teller. 

7. May be Omitted Altogether 

Sometimes, in a story for adults, particularly when 
the climax is of such a character as to cause the listener 
to laugh, the ending may be left off altogether. In this 
case, the ending will be inferred, or " understood," and 
no confusion will result. Usually, however, even for 
adults, the story might better have an ending. 

READING AND DISCUSSION 

1. Analyze some familiar story, naming and number- 
ing its events. 

2. Select five stories, and write out a new beginning 
for each. 



Parts of the Story 55 

3. Write a new ending also for each of these five 
stories. 

4. Select some one story, and write for it five 'dif- 
ferent beginnings. 

5. Write for this same story five different endings. 

6. Read and criticize Chapter II in St. John's 
" Stories and Story-Telling." 



CHAPTER VI 
DEFINITION OF THE STORY 

The story is a narrative of actual or imaginary events, 
so arranged as to constitute a vitally related whole, mak- 
ing a single definite impression, and so told as to bring 
about a change for the better in the listener. 

1. The Story as a Form of Narrative 

The story is narration in a specialized form. Narra- 
tion has been defined as follows : " Narration is the re- 
counting, in succession, of the particulars that make up a 
transaction." In general, two kinds of narration may be 
distinguished, namely, history and fiction. 

(1) Relation of the Story to History 

History may be defined as the systematic recounting 
of actual events that are considered important in the 
progress of the human race. One type of story, namely, 
the history-story, is history in the sense that it is a narra- 
tive of actual events. 

History, however, includes much that the history-story 
cannot use, while, on the other hand, the history-story 
makes important use of a wide range of material which 
is not considered to he of sufficient importance to justify 
a place in history. 

The best part of history is biography, which is the 
narration of actual events in the life of an individual. 
Biography provides much valuable material for history- 
56 



Definition of the Story 57 

stories, but there are many good history-stories which 
draw their material from individuals whose biographies 
are not written. The story of even a modest present-day 
hero or heroine may be far more effective, under given 
circumstances, than any story that can be drawn from 
the books of biography. 

The trained story-teller does not make a fetish of 
history. He does, of course, draw freely from the books 
of history and biography, but, at the same time, he 
realizes that his best stories are ever in the process of 
making, in the lives of his fellow-beings about him, only 
awaiting the touch of the magic of his dramatic art. In- 
deed, the story-teller's best stories will come out of his 
own life. 

(2) Relation of the Story to Fiction 

Fiction, which is invented narrative, or the narration 
of imaginary events, is akin to legend-stories, parable- 
stories, fable-stories, myth-stories, fairy-stories, and alle- 
gory-stories, in that it does not confine itself to literal 
facts, but there are important differences. 

The novel, one type of fiction, is much longer than the 
story, is more complex in plot, and may or may not teach 
truth, whereas the story seeks always primarily to teach 
and only incidentally to entertain. 

The short story, another type of fiction, while shorter 
than the novel usually, in actual length, is, as a rule, 
much longer than the story. The short story, like the 
novel, seeks chiefly to entertain, but, unlike the novel and 
like the story, it seeks to make a single impression. 

The drama is a type of fiction " wherein the characters 
speak for themselves, making as it were the story before 



58 Story -Telling Lessons 

our eyes." The story is like the drama in that it is 
dramatic in form and in that it allows the characters to 
make the story themselves, but it is shorter than the 
drama, and far simpler in construction. Moreover, it 
differs from the drama in that it has a more serious pur- 
pose, as a rule. 

2. All Real Stories Are True 

If a story is not true, it is not a story. It may not be 
literally true, but it must be essentially true. The truth 
of the story is not dependent on actual facts, but on es- 
sential truth. The world is full of facts which are not 
truths. Facts are important only as they are related to 
truth, to impression, to life. 

(1) Literalness Not Essential 

If the story does, incidentally, make use of facts, 
that is, if its events are actual events, then they are im- 
portant because these actual events are so arranged as 
to constitute a vitally related whole, making a single 
definite impression, and so told as to bring about a change 
for the better in the listener. 

On the other hand, the events of the story may be 
imaginary events, but they seem real, just as real as 
actual events, and, because they are skilfully arranged 
and dramatically handled, they make a true impression 
and bring about a change for the better in the listener. 
Therefore, this narrative of imaginary events is a true 
story. It is a misuse of the word true to say of any story 
that it is not true. All stories that teach truth are true, 
and the literalness or non-literalness of the events is 
wholly unimportant. 



Definition of the Story 59 



(2) Reality is Essential 

The events in the story may not have occurred liter- 
ally, actually, at any particular time, in any definite place, 
and may be the result of the skilful exercise of the con- 
structive imagination, but such narrative of imaginary 
events, setting forth essential reality, teaches truth just 
as effectively as would a narrative of actual events, pro- 
vided, of course, there is not made a false formal claim 
for its literalness. To definitely affirm that the imag- 
inary events of a story actually occurred is lying. 

Two terms have been used in connection with story- 
telling which would seem to be quite misleading, namely, 
realistic and idealistic. When the story is a narrative of 
actual events, it is called realistic; and, when it is a nar- 
rative of imaginary events, it is called idealistic. As a 
matter of fact, the events in all stories seem real and 
are essentially realistic. So, likewise, all stories present 
ideals, and are essentially idealistic. 

3. Makes a Single Definite Impression 

If a story teaches two things, it does not teach any- 
thing. One story teaches only one thing, and must teach 
only one thing in order to teach anything. Indeed, no 
single story attempts to teach even one whole virtue 
or a complete quality of character, but rather to teach 
one phase of one virtue, one quality of character, or one 
type of conduct. 

(1) Limited in Scope 

In teaching honesty, for instance, many stories are 
required to develop in the life the attitude and apprecia- 



60 Story-Telling Lessons 

tion and practice of honesty. One story will teach a 
reward of honesty, a second will teach a penalty of dis- 
honesty, a third will teach a duty in honesty, a fourth 
will teach a satisfaction in being honest, and so on almost 
indefinitely. 

Take selfishness as another example. The story of the 
boy who could not get his hand out of the jar of nuts 
until he let go of some of the nuts teaches that it does 
not pay to be greedy, while the story of the dog in the 
manger teaches that selfishness is unreasonable. So there 
are other stories to teach many other phases of this virtue. 

(2) Moral and Climax 

In every case, the story makes known some one phase 
of truth, making right desirable and wrong undesirable, 
and tends to develop better life and conduct. And this 
single definite impression is made when the listener gets 
the point of the story, the lesson, the moral, the teaching. 

The impression is made as soon as the story reaches 
a climax. The climax " is that which makes the story." 
Without it there is no story — only an accumulation of 
words. Everything in the story must lead up to and 
help to make the climax. The climax is the load in the 
gun. As soon as the climax is reached, the story must 
stop with a brief sentence or two of ending. The story 
itself is done. 

4. A Change for the Better in the Listener 

The real story has a very serious and a very practical 
purpose. Incidentally it entertains and instructs, but its 
chief concern is to bring about a change for the better 
in the life and conduct of the listener. Every story, then, 



Definition of the Story 61 

is a teaching-story, a character-story, and achieves its 
aim vitally, dramatically, practically, effectively. 

(1) Story-telling and Exposition 

Story-telling may be distinguished from exposition. 
" Exposition is invention dealing with ideas or general- 
izations," whereas the story deals with characters, events, 
particulars, and therefore makes a stronger appeal to the 
imagination, the emotions, and the will. In other words, 
the story goes far beyond instruction, which is the aim 
of exposition, and includes reformation. 

Six types of exposition are distinguished by the 
rhetorician, namely, (1) definition, which classifies an 
object, (2) exegesis, which amplifies definition, (3) an- 
tithesis, which emphasizes by contrast, (4) iteration, 
which repeats the same idea in different form, (5) ex- 
ample, which gives in the concrete the meaning of the 
abstract, and (6) analogy, which indicates likenesses. 

All of these have their place, of course, in teaching, 
but the story is more effective than any one of them, and 
indeed than all of them together. Take example, for 
instance. To say that a certain individual gave one-fifth 
of his total income to religion and charity, is an example 
of liberality, and is effective, but, to tell the story of this 
individual's liberality, to show his liberality in action, 
dramatically, is far more effective. Most of our so- 
called " illustrations " consist of examples and analogies, 
and, while they are valuable, they are not stories. 

(2) Story-telling and Argumentation 

Story-telling also may be distinguished from argumen- 
tation. " Argumentation is invention dealing with truths. 



62 Story-Telling Lessons 

either ideas or facts." Argumentation differs from ex- 
position in that it is concerned with the testing of the 
truth of things. The story is concerned with truths, but 
only with vital truths in their practical relations. More- 
over, the story does not argue for the truth, but rather 
assumes that it is true, and thus depends on indirect sug- 
gestion, which is far more effective than the direct sug- 
gestion of argumentation. 

In other words, in contrast with argumentation, the 
story is concerned only incidentally with truth as truth, 
in itself, but chiefly with the power of truth, with making 
truth effective in the life. Argumentation is at its best 
when it is persuasion, and persuasion is at its best when 
it is story. 

The story does what all good teaching must do, and 
does it most effectively. It accomplishes its purpose 
through the threefold appeal to the whole being. First, 
through the appeal to the imagination and other intel- 
lectual functions, it makes truth real, and thus enables 
the listener to know it. Second, through the appeal to 
the emotions, it makes truth attractive, and thus enables 
the listener to want it. Third, through the appeal to the 
will, it makes the truth effective, and thus enables the 
listener to do it. In brief, the story promotes attitudes 
of mind, develops qualities of character, and suggests 
modes of behavior. 

5. Example of a True Story 

There has grown out of my own experience a story 
that is a narrative of im.aginary events, and which I have 
told to various groups of boys and girls about nine, ten, 
and eleven years of age, with most gratifying results. 



Definition of the Story 63 

I should not allow anyone to say of this story that it is 
not true. The boys and girls themselves never have 
raised the question of its literalness or non-literalness, 
for the reason that they are too busy with its essential 
truth. 

When Roger started to school, one morning, he said, 
" Good-bye, mamma." His mother said, " Good-bye, 
son. Be a good boy today." He said, " Yes'm." On 
the way to school he had a quarrel with another boy, 
and they got into a fight. At noon they had another 
fight, and, on the way home, still another fight. 

He had three fights in one day, and he had not in- 
tended to have any fights. He had meant it when he 
said " Yes*m " to his mother. When he reached home, 
and told his mother about it, she said, " You promised 
mamma to be a good boy." " I know I did," said Roger, 
" but I could not help it. Robert called me a bad name, 
and I just biffed him one before I thought." 

Another day, when Roger had disobeyed his mother, 
he said, " I don't know why it is that I just will be 
bad, sometimes. There seems to be something inside of 
me that makes me bad." His mother said, " That is 
exactly the trouble. It is ' out of the heart ' that the bad 
things come." 

" Well," said Roger, " I just can't help it, then, and I 
am not to blame." Said his mother, " Let us see who is 
to blame." So, drawing Roger to her side, she talked to 
him about the bad in his heart, and about who was to 
blame. She told him that she was partly to blame, that 
his father was partly to blame, that his older brother 
was partly to blame, that his younger sister was partly 
to blame. " But there is one other to blame," she said, 



64 Story-Telling Lessons 

" and that is Roger. And Roger must try to get and keep 
these bad things out of his heart." 

" All right," said Roger, '' you take them out." " I 
cannot do that," said his mother. ** If I had been able to 
do that I should have taken them out long ago." 

Then, one day, Roger said to the minister, " Pastor, 
please get the bad things out of my heart, so I can be a 
good boy." *' I do not know how to do that, my boy," 
said the minister. *' I wish I did." " Then I want to be 
baptized," said Roger. ** Why do you want to be bap- 
tized ? " asked the minister. " So I can get the bad things 
out of my heart," answered Roger. " It is a good thing 
to be baptized, but the water cannot get into your heart 
and make it clean," said the minister. 

" Then I want to join the church," said Roger. *' It 
is a fine thing to belong to the church, and everyone ought 
to be a church-member, but the church has no heart-mop 
with which to clean out your heart," said the minister. 
" There is only One who can get the bad things out of 
your heart, Roger, and keep it clean." And the minister 
told Roger about that One. 

One Sunday, while Roger was listening to the ser- 
mon, he heard a knock at the door of his heart, and a 
voice saying, *' Open the door of your heart, and let me 
come in, and I will get the bad things out of your heart, 
and keep it clean." Again, one Sunday, during Sunday 
school, Roger heard that knock, knock, knock, and the 
same kind voice — " Open the door of your heart, and 
let me come in." 

Then, one night, after Roger had gone to bed, and was 
trying to go to sleep, he said, " I wish I were not such 
a bad boy. I wish I could get all the bad things out of 



Definition of the Story 65 

my heart, and keep them out. I wish I could be a good 
Christian." Just then he heard again that knock, knock, 
knock at the door of his heart, and the same gentle voice 
saying, " Open the door of your heart, and let me come 
in." And Roger said, "Come in! Come in!" 
And He came in. 

READING AND DISCUSSION 

1. Discuss the story of Roger's heart. Is it a true 
story ? Why ? 

2. See the following: Partridge, pages 7, 17, 22, 29, 
117-120; Forbush, Chapter XIX; St. John, Chapters I 
and XII; Wyche, Chapter I; Keyes, page 34; Cather, 
Chapters I and XIII. 

3. Name the story which has most influenced your life, 
and seek to explain its power. 

4. Practice telling stories, and court criticism. 



CHAPTER VII 
TYPES OF STORIES 

Stories may be classified, according to literary type, as 
follows : History-stories, legend-stories, parable-stories, 
fable-stories, myth-stories, fairy-stories, allegory-stories. 
Every teaching-story should fall into one of these seven 
classes. 

1. HISTORY-STORIES 

Definition: History-stories teach truth through the se- 
lective presentation of actual occurrences in human lives. 

In this definition, the word history is used in a limited 
sense. Originally, the word meant something learned by 
inquiry, and it has come to mean, popularly, a systematic 
record of actual occurrences in the lives of human beings 
that are considered important for the understanding of 
nations, whereas the history-story is such a selection of 
actual occurrences as are considered important in the 
teaching of the truth, that is, in the bringing about 
of a change for the better in the listener or group of 
listeners. 

The interest of history is focused upon those of whom 
it tells, while that of the history-story is focused upon 
those to whom it tells ; history looks backward, while the 
history-story looks forward; history explains the past, 
while the history-story makes the present and the future ; 
history reveals what has been achieved, while the history- 
story creates that which does not yet exist. 
66 



Types of Stories 61 



In considering these distinctions between history and 
the history-story, it should be recognized that history, 
through a continuous process of revision and readjust- 
ment, for a generation or more, has been gradually ap- 
proaching the view-point of the history-story, and this 
change has made history more interesting and more 
helpful. 

The history-story has four chief sources, namely, his- 
tory, biography, current literature, and personal experi- 
ence. From these four sources, the history-story draws 
freely and impartially, on the basis of selection for the 
teaching of truth. Frequently it happens that the most 
obscure characters furnish the most important events. 

2. LEGEND-STORIES 

Definition: Legend-stories teach truth through the 
narration of imaginary events which attribute to well- 
known human beings actions in harmony with their 
known character. 

The word legend, in its derivation, means simply 
something read, and, popularly, it is used quite loosely. 
Legend, in the sense in which it is here used, is true, 
because it teaches truth, but it is not literally true. 

Usually the legend is attached to some well-known 
historical character, and grows out of popular interest 
in the individual or out of admiration for him. Fre- 
quently it reveals the true character of the individual, 
and, in any event, it makes a true impression upon the 
listener, bringing about a change for the better. 

Frequently, it is exceedingly difficult to draw accurately 
the line between history-story and legend-story, for the 



68 Story-Telling Lessons 

reason that there may be no way of determining defi- 
nitely whether or not all the events actually occurred. 
Probably examples of legend-stories are " George Wash- 
ington and the Cherry Tree," '' Abraham Lincoln and 
the Pig," "St. Patrick and the Snakes," and "What 
Pershing said to the German Peace-Ambassadors.'* 

3. PARABLE-STORIES 

Definition : Parable-stories teach truth through imag- 
inary events which are within the range of ordinary ex- 
perience and observation. 

Parable, in its etymology, means something thrown 
alongside, and popularly, the term is used quite loosely, 
chiefly of certain stories in the Bible. Some Bible stories 
which are called parables are not parable-stories at all, 
and the larger number of parables are outside the Bible. 
In fact, the largest number of modern stories are of 
this type. 

The parable-story does not have in mind any particu- 
lar individual or individuals, but it seems real, and is 
probable or possible in any ordinary human experience. 
It is not literally true, but it is essentially true, because it 
teaches truth. 

Frequently, in reading a story, or in hearing it told, 
one cannot know whether it is history-story or parable- 
story until he learns the history of its origin, and, in that 
case, unless he knows that it is a history-story, he may 
classify it as a parable-story. 

So far as the parable-story itself is concerned, it never 
raises the question of literalness or non-literalness. It 
simply assumes that the events are actual, without making 



Types of Stories 69 



any formal claims, and moves right along exactly as if 
they were. Thus it succeeds in creating the illusion of 
reality, and in making its true impression. It is a true 
story. 

Indeed, it is exceedingly difficult sometimes to deter- 
mine luhether it is history-story or parable-story, even 
when you are in full possession of all the facts connected 
with the origin of the story. The history-story, as well 
as the parable-story, requires, in its making, such a se- 
lection and arrangement of events as will clothe it with 
the dramatic qualities of effectiveness, and it is exceed- 
ingly difficult, at times, to determine when a selection 
and arrangement of events may become practically a 
creating of events. 

Sometimes also the memory is at fault. Unless short- 
hand notes are taken at the time, it is not humanly pos- 
sible always to retain and reproduce accurately and liter- 
ally, while, at other times, it is not advisable to do so, for 
the reason that a dramatic editing will make for effec- 
tiveness. 

In some cases, a history-story will pass through a proc- 
ess of unconscious revision that will cause it gradually to 
become a parable-story, and which at the same time will 
make it the more effective. Perhaps we shall have to 
place here some of the stories of the popular evangelist. 
On the other hand, probably we ought to say, in justice 
to the evangelist, in this connection, that the story which 
is presented as history-story, and which we may have 
heard related before as personal experience of other in- 
dividuals, may be literally true, in fact, for the reason 
that it may have been an actual experience common to 
several individuals. 



70 Story-Telling Lessons 



4. FABLE-STORIES 

Definition : Fable-stories teach truth through the narra- 
tion of imaginary events which attribute human charac- 
teristics to the lower animals and to the forces and objects 
of nature. 

Fable means something spoken, but any type of story 
is of course something spoken. Many stories found in 
collections of ** Fables " really are not fables at all, ac- 
cording to our definition. 

The fundamental reason for attributing human char- 
acteristics to the lower animals, and to the forces and 
objects of nature, and the explanation of the success of 
the fable-story, is that the characters thus become more 
real to the listener, and this illusion of reality makes for 
effectiveness in the teaching of the truth which it con- 
tains. Sometimes also this attribution of human charac- 
teristics makes the truth of the story more palatable, so 
to speak, by reason of its indirectness, and its appeal to 
the sense of humor. 

Some of the well-known fable-stories are the follow- 
ing : " The Fox and the Cat,'* " The Fox and the Grapes," 
'' The Dog in the Manger," " The Boys and the Frogs,'* 
and the '' Bre'r Rabbit " stories. 

5. MYTH-STORIES 

Definition : Myth-stories teach truth through the narra- 
tion of imaginary events which express traditional be- 
liefs and explanations with reference to the forces and 
objects of nature and the lower animals. 



Types of Stories 71 



Etymologically, myth means something said, but any 
story is something said. The myth-story is closely re- 
lated to the legend-story, but the latter has to do with 
persons, while the former has to do with nature. 

The value of the myth-story today usually is dependent 
on our ability to make it teach something different from 
its original teaching, and is, therefore, the most difficult 
to handle of all the types of stories. 

Some of the well-known myth-stories are the follow- 
ing : " Why the Robin's Breast is Red," " The Man in 
the Moon," ** Prometheus, the Greek Fire-Giver," " The 
Story of the Sunflower," "How the Camel Got His 
Hump," " Thor and Thunder." 

6. FAIRY-STORIES 

Definition: Fairy-stories teach truth through the nar- 
ration of strange or supernatural events, frequently in- 
volving sudden changes in size and location. 

Etymologically, fairy means enchantment, and this 
meaning hints at present usage. The fairy-story is likely 
to have in it fairies, sprites, elfs, goblins, dwarfs, etc. 

Many fairy-stories are folk-tales, having originated 
early in the development of a race of people, and having 
been told for many generations before they were put into 
written form. Other types of stories also are to be 
classed as folk-tales, namely, myth-stories, some fable- 
stories, some parable-stories, some legend-stories, and 
some allegory-stories. 

Among the well-known fairy-stories are " The Golden 
Goose," "Diamonds and Toads," "The Frog King," 
"The Sleeping Beauty," "Jack and the Beanstalk," 



72 Story-Telling Lessons 

" Jack the Giant Killer," " Aladdin and His Wonderful 
Lamp," " Boots and His Brothers." 

7. ALLEGORY-STORIES 

Definition: Allegory-stories teach truth through the 
narration of imaginary events which, in their form, in- 
dicate hidden meanings in ordinary events and character- 
istics. 

Allegory means, in its derivation, haranguing another, 
and this meaning does not enter into our definition. 
This type of story is the most artificial, and the most 
difficult of construction, but it is true, because it teaches 
truth. 

An example of a modern allegory-story is the author's 
" Mr. Sunday School and the Doctor." 

Mr. Sunday School was sick. 

His wife said to him, *' I wish you would let me call 
in Doctor Specialist. He cured Uncle Sermon and Aunt 
Music, and our neighbors, Mr. Business and Mrs. Public 
School, and I am sure he could cure you." 

" No, I'm not going to have any doctor. Doctors cost 
money, and, besides, if I call in a doctor, everybody will 
know I'm sick, and I don't want anybody to know it. 
I know what's the matter with me, and I can cure my- 
self. I'm suffering from Irregularity." So he took some 
of Doctors Cross and Crown Tablets, but grew no better. 

His wife came to him again, and said, '' I wish you'd 
let me call in Doctor Specialist. I just know he could 
cure you.'* " No, I'm not going to have any doctor, I 
tell you. I can cure myself. I'm suffering from Tardi- 
ness." So he took some of Doctor Scold's Liniment; 



Types of Stories 73 



but he took it internally instead of externally, and it 
almost killed him. 

His wife said again, " Do let me call in the doctor. I 
just hate to see you suffer so." " How many times do I 
have to tell you I'm not going to have any old doctor? 
The only thing that's the matter with me is Non-Prep- 
aration, and I can cure myself." So he tried some of 
Doctor Exhortation's Tea — drank gallons of it — but 
could note no improvement in the way he felt. 

Again Mrs. Sunday School said, " Husband, dear, I 
wish you'd let me call Doctor Specialist." " I tell you 
I'm not going to have any doctor. I'm going to cure 
myself. I'm suffering from Confusion." So he took 
some of Doctor Bell's and Doctor Yell's Stimulant, and 
became almost a raving maniac. 

His wife came to him in tears, " Sunday, dear, I can't 
bear to see you suffer so. Please let me call the doctor." 
" I will not have the doctor. That's final ! The only 
thing that's the matter with me is Worldliness, and I 
can cure myself." So he took some of Dr. Pious Talk's 
Pink Pills, but could note no improvement. 

Mrs. Sunday School said, "Aren't you going to let 
me call Doctor Specialist, dear? " " Don't mention that 
doctor to me again. I'm going to cure myself. I'm suf- 
fering from Diminution." So he tried some of Doctor 
Contest's Electric Treatments. As long as he kept up the 
treatments he took on flesh, but, as soon as he stopped, 
he lost all he had gained, and grew steadily worse. 

Then his wife said, " I don't care what you say, I'm 
going to call Doctor Specialist. I'm tired of having a 
sick man around the house." So she went to the tele- 
phone and said, " Hello, Central, give me Efficiency 1921. 



74 Story-Telling Lessons 

Hello, is this Doctor Specialist? This is Mrs. Sunday- 
School. Mr. Sunday School is sick, and I want you to 
come over and see him right away. What? Oh, at the 
corner of Mossback Avenue and Conservative Boule- 
vard. All right. Good-bye." 

Doctor Specialist came, examined the patient, diag- 
nosed the case, and pronounced it a severe attack of 
Ignoramusitis. He prescribed a reorganization cathartic, 
a teacher-training tonic, a graded-lesson diet, depart- 
mental exercises, and divine companionship. 

Mrs. Sunday School saw to it that her husband took 
the medicine regularly and followed the doctor's instruc- 
tions faithfully, and five years from that time he was the 
healthiest man in the state of Improvement. 

And his wife said, " I told you Doctor Specialist could 
cure you." 

READING AND DISCUSSION 

1. Memorize and justify the seven definitions given in 
this chapter. 

2. Classify five stories not named in this chapter. 

3. Is a speaker ever justified in saying, " Please pardon 
a personal illustration"? Why? 

4. Note, in "A Manual of Stories," by Forbush, 
Chapter III and Appendix I, that the classifications 
are popular, and not scientific. 

5. Note, in Sly's " World Stories Retold," another 
loose, popular classification, as follows: (1) "Bible 
Stories." Classification on the basis of source. There 
are various literary types of stories in the Bible. (2) 
** Missionary Stories." Again the source is the basis of 



Types of Stories 75 



classification. (3) " Play Stories." Classification on the 
basis of purpose. (4) '' Fairy and Folk-Tales." Many 
folk-tales are not fairy-stories, and some of them are. 
(5) ** Fables." Many stories here indicated are not 
fable-stories at all. (6) "Myths." Classification on 
the basis of literary type. (7) *' Legends." Classification 
on the basis of literary type. (8) " Nature-Stories." 
Classification on the basis of source. (9) ''Allegorical- 
Stories." Classification on the basis of literary type. 
(10) " Historical-Stories." Classification on the basis of 
literary type. (11) "Biographical-Stories." Literary 
type. (12) " Altruistic-Stories." Purpose. (13) " Love- 
Stories." Purpose. (14) "Vocational Stories." Pur- 
pose. (15) " Instructional Stories." Purpose. But that 
is the purpose of all stories, using the word instruction 
in the vital sense. (16) " Humorous Stories." Puts the 
emphasis upon a quality in the story, and one that is 
quite incidental. 

6. Other examples of loose classification of stories are 
to be found in " Story-Telling for Upper Grade Teach- 
ers," by Cross and Statler, Chapter HI, and in " Stories 
and Story-Telling," by St. John, Chapter XIII. 

7. Note, in " Story-Telling in School and Home," by 
Partridge, Chapters V to X inclusive, an approach to 
a scientific classification, but one that is still largely of 
the popular character. Chapter XIII is entitled " Edu- 
cational Story-Telling." All story-telling is educational, 
if we use the term education in its broad and vital sense. 
Chapter XVII is entitled " The Story in Moral Edu- 
cation." Every real story, when psychologically anal- 
yzed, will be found to be usable in moral education. 



CHAPTER VIII 
GRADING OF STORIES 

" I don't like that story," said one of my students, 
when asked to tell a certain story before a class, for 
criticism. " You have no right either to like or to dis- 
like any story," I said. " It is the listeners who must like 
it, and they only that they may give attention to it, and 
may get and live its truth." 

1. Necessity for Grading 

" But, if I do not like the story," said the student, *' can 
I expect my listeners to like it ? " *' Certainly," I said. 
" This story was made for individuals much younger than 
yourself, and their interests and needs are very different 
from yours. The very qualities in the story which cause 
you to dislike it may he exactly the ones which will 
make it effective with those for whom it was intended.'* 

" But," insisted the student, " how can I make myself 
like the story if I do not like it ? " " Why, that is not at 
all impossible," I said. " First, let us determine, in the 
light of the best conclusions of genetic psychology, just 
where this story belongs. Then imagine yourself to be 
in that period of life, with its particular interests and 
needs, and soon the story will take on a new interest, 
and you will come to like it because you will see that it is 
a good story, and that it will he effective with its proper 
audience/* 

After some further discussion, we decided on the 
76 



Grading of Stories 77 

story's grading, and the student adopted the suggestions 
which had been given, and was able to come into a 
proper appreciation of the story under consideration. 

During the discussion, one of the members of the class 
said, " Do you not think that a good story is good for 
everybody?" "No," I said, "it is not. However good 
a story may be, it is good for only a limited constituency, 
those individuals into whose interests it fits definitely and 
whose particular needs it meets effectively." 

" But," said another, " do you not think that some 
stories are universal in their appeal?" "No," I said, 
" there is no story with a universal appeal. It may be 
true that some stories have a wider range of appeal than 
do others, but it is a limited range at the best. Stories 
must be graded just as all teaching materials must be 
graded." 

" But," opposed still another, " I think there are some 
children's stories, for instance, that are interesting to 
adults, and some adult stories that are interesting to chil- 
dren." " There would seem to be some ground for this 
opinion," I said, " if it were required only that the story 
be interesting, but it must be also, and chiefly, effective — 
that is, it must put its truth over into the life of the 
listener and bring about a change for the better." 

" Do you mean," said the questioner, " that there are 
certain stories, for instance, which are distinctively and 
exclusively * junior ' stories ? " "I do mean that exactly," 
I replied. "During the period usually called 'junior,' 
ages about nine to eleven inclusive, there are certain 
dominant interests and certain distinctive needs which 
make certain stories most effective in the life during this 
period." 



78 Story-Telling Lessons 

*' What is the first question to ask, then, in grading a 
story ? " was one of the questions asked during this class 
discussion. " The first question always," I said, " in 
grading a story, is 'Will this story be interesting to the 
particular group in view?' The story may be inter- 
esting, of course, and at the same time not be efifective, 
but, nevertheless, it must be interesting in order to be 
effective. For, unless the story is interesting to the lis- 
tener, he will not give attention to it, and, therefore, he 
will not get the impression, the teaching, the truth, the 
benefit. In order to be effective, the story must fit into 
the life of the listener, that is, it must be interesting to 
him, must have value for him, must satisfy a conscious 
need, must help him to solve his problem." 

" Is it true," was asked, " that each period of human 
life has its own particular story interests? " " Undoubt- 
edly," was the answer. " This change in interests from 
period to period is due to the ripening of instincts and 
the enlarging of experience. Interests are both innate, 
or immediate, and acquired, or mediate. The continuous 
changing In the interests of an individual is due, then, to 
two groups of influences, or stimuli, namely, inborn im- 
pulses from within and suggestions from without. Of 
course, even the impulses from within are more and 
more acquired, and less and less innate, as the experi- 
ence enlarges." 

" But," it was objected, " are there not certain interests 
that persist through life? " " There is a measure of truth 
there," was the reply, " in that probably no interest ever 
wholly disappears after it once appears, but at the same 
time each interest would appear to be strongest during a 
limited period immediately after its first appearance, and 



Grading of Stories 79 

it is the interest at its best which must be considered in 
the grading of stories. 

" Indeed, it would seem that each period of life has 
some one new interest which is strongest during this 
period, and that this interest is the dominant interest 
of the period. If this be true, then it is this dominant 
interest in each period that will constitute the story- 
teller's pole-star as he explores the domain of selection. 

" Of course, always, it must be kept in mind that 
there is considerable overlapping between the periods, 
and that most of the interests continue to be effective 
after they once appear. Moreover, in addition to those 
interests peculiar to the various periods of life and com- 
mon to all normal human beings, there are certain other 
special interests to be considered, such as those which are 
due to vocation and avocation. ' Shop talk ' always is in- 
teresting even in a story. A farm story, for instance, 
is more interesting to farmers than to those who dwell 
in a city and who know little of rural Hfe." 

2. Basis for Grading 

With this discussion of interests in mind, we are now 
in a position to arrive at a scientific basis for the proper 
grading of stories. In the grading of stories, we should 
keep in mind the materials of which the story is com- 
posed, the form in which the materials are presented, and 
the teaching of the events. 

(1) Materials 

The materials of the story must, in themselves, make 
essential connection with the dominant story-interests of 
the listener. For the first period of the student's life. 



80 Story-Telling Lessons 

the story will deal particularly with things; for the second 
period, with individuals as such; for the third period, 
with relations of individuals to others; for the fourth 
period, with activities; for the fifth period, with ideas 
and ideals ; for the sixth period, with vocations and avo- 
cations; for the seventh period, with relations between 
the sexes; for the eighth period, with the great problems 
of hfe. 

The materials of which the story is composed must 
have chief consideration in all grading. A story, for 
instance, composed of materials having to do with rela- 
tions between the sexes, might possess all the excel- 
lencies as to its form and teaching, and might be " heav- 
enly " to an eighteen-year-old, but to a ten-year-old, it 
would be "Mush!" 

(2) Form 

The literary form, or type, of the story must have im- 
portant consideration in grading, for the reason that some 
forms better adapt themselves to some periods than to 
others. At the same time, it must be kept in mind that 
some types have a range of suitability covering several 
periods. 

History-stories, which teach truth through the selective 
presentation of actual occurrences in human lives, are 
better suited to the later periods, as a rule, than to the 
earlier periods, but at the same time it must be kept in 
mind that there are history-stories for all ages. 

Legend-stories, which teach truth through the narra- 
tion of imaginary events which attribute to well-known 
human beings actions in harmony with their known char- 
acter, are most suitable, usually, for ages about twelve 



Grading of Stories 81 

to fourteen, chiefly for the reason that their materials are 
mainly all idealistic, but there are some legends suitable 
for later periods. 

Parable-stories, which teach truth through imaginary 
events which are within the range of ordinary experi- 
ence and observation, adapt themselves to the materials 
for all the periods of life. Indeed, the parable-story is 
the most universal of all the types, the history-story com- 
ing next in its universality. 

Fable-stories, which teach truth through the narration 
of imaginary events which attribute human character- 
istics to the lower animals, usually adapt themselves best 
to the materials suitable for the years about four to eight, 
but there would seem to be no reason why we should 
not use fable-stories effectively also for all the later 
periods, if we could find somebody to write them. Most 
of the fable-stories which we have are folk-tales, and 
their brevity, simplicity, and naivete would seem to justify 
our placing of them in the earlier period. 

Myth-stories, which teach truth through the narration 
of imaginary events which express traditional beliefs and 
explanations with reference to the forces and objects of 
nature, adapt themselves chiefly to the materials which 
are suitable for the ages about four to eight, along with 
the fable-stories, and for similar reasons. 

Fairy-stories, which teach truth through the narration 
of strange or supernatural events, and frequently involv- 
ing sudden changes in size and location, are suitable 
chiefly for the ages about four to eight, along with the 
fable-stories and myth-stories, and for similar reasons. 
We have, however, some good fairy-stories for the later 
periods, and we ought to have more. 



82 Story-Telling Lessons 

Allegory-stories, which teach truth through the narra- 
tion of imaginary events which, in their form, indicate 
hidden meanings in ordinary events and characteristics, 
are suitable chiefly for young people and adults and not 
at all for the earlier periods, for the reason that they 
involve considerable experience in abstract reasoning. 

(3) Teaching 

Preliminary to the grading o.f a story, always it is 
important to ask the question, " Just what does this story 
teach? " The answer to this question, taken in connec- 
tion with the materials and the form, will assist in the 
proper placing of the story. 

It would seem that there are, in each of the life periods, 
certain attitudes, qualities of character, and modes of 
behavior which need especially to he taught at this par- 
ticular time. Stories that teach obedience to parents, 
for instance, will come early in life, while those that teach 
against neglect or mistreatment of parents will come in 
the later periods. That familiar fairy-story, " The Run- 
away Pancake," one of the most popular of old folk-tales, 
teaches a lesson in obedience — ^that it does not pay to run 
away from home — and belongs therefore to the earliest 
period, when the child, at about three years of age, is 
likely to run away from the house and into danger. 

3. Dominant Story Interests 

An outline of what would seem to be the dominant 
story interests of life, with brief discussion, may serve as 
an approximate guide in dealing with the materials of 
the story. It must be understood that this outline is 
not offered as a complete statement. 



Grading of Stories 83 

(1) Things 

In the first story-telling period, during infancy, ages 
about two and three, known as the cradle-roll period in 
the Sunday school, the dominant story interest may be 
best indicated by the term things. 

This is the sense period, when these small human beings 
are interested chiefly in experiencing sensations over and 
over again, that they may get better and better acquainted 
with things. More and more, their sensations are yield- 
ing perceptions, and they are beginning to acquire vari- 
ous concepts as the building materials of the mental life. 

They are interested chiefly therefore in the common 
objects of nature, in ordinary household objects, in sim- 
ple rhythmical repetitions, in little rhymes and jingles, in 
parts of their own body, etc., etc. 

(2) Individuals 

In the second period, during early childhood, ages 
about four and five, known as the beginners, or kinder- 
garten, period in the Sunday school, the dominant story 
interest may be indicated by the term individuals. Chil- 
dren of this age are able now to appreciate self as an 
individual, and also others as individuals-=-parent, brother 
or sister, playmate, domestic animal, insect, bird, etc., etc. 

(3) Groups 

In the third period, during middle childhood, ages 
about six to eight, grades one to three in the public 
school, known as the primary period in the Sunday 
school, the dominant story interest may be indicated 
by the term groups. 



84 Story'Telling Lessons 

In this period, the social instincts are ripening, and 
the children are coming now to have relations with a 
larger number of individuals, so they are interested not 
only in individuals as individuals, but also in the rela- 
tions of individuals to individuals. They are interested 
therefore in stories which depict various home and school 
activities, which picture individuals playing with other 
individuals. 

(4) Achievement 

In the fourth period, during later childhood, ages about 
nine to eleven, grades four to six in the public school, 
known as the junior period in the Sunday school, the 
dominant story interest may be indicated by the term 
achievement. 

In this period, the growing experiences of the children 
enable them to distinguish more accurately between fact 
and fancy, and better to coordinate mind and muscle. It 
is a period of slow growth and good health, and their 
lives are characterized by much activity. Therefore, they 
are interested in stories whose materials are composed 
chiefly of doing, deeds, achievement. 

(5) Attainment 

In the fifth period, during early adolescence, ages about 
twelve to fourteen, grades seven to nine, or junior high 
school, known as the intermediate period in the Sunday 
school, the dominant story interest may be indicated by 
the term attainment. 

In this period, the enlarged experience enables these 
young adolescents better to discern the character of the 
doer behind the doing, and to form ideals. 



Grading of Stories 85 

(6) Vocations 

In the sixth period, during middle adolescence, ages 
about fifteen to seventeen, grades ten to twelve, or senior 
high school, known as the senior period in the Sunday 
school, the dominant story interest may be indicated by 
the term vocations. 

In this period, these developing adolescents feel that 
they are getting to be men and women, and that they 
must find their place in life. They are seeking to find 
themselves and to place themselves in the world, and they 
are interested, therefore, in stories which involve the 
vocational interests. 

(7) Courtship 

In the seventh period, during later adolescence, or 
youth, ages about eighteen to twenty- four, college and 
university, known as the young people's period in the 
Sunday school, the dominant story interest may be indi- 
cated by the term courtship. 

In this period, the sexual impulse is strong, and it 
colors the whole life, which is characterized, therefore, 
by dreams and plans of home-making. 

(8) Struggle 

In the eighth period, during adulthood, about twenty- 
five and over, the dominant story interest may be in- 
dicated by the term struggle. Life now is serious and 
full of a variety of problems. Courtship and struggle in 
stories for this period make a powerful combination. 

Particularly suitable, in this period, are stories of 
struggle and achievement drawn from the varied experi- 



86 Story-Telling Lessons 

ences of contemporary life, as well as the biographies of 
the great men and women of history. 

READING AND DISCUSSION 

1. For the names and sources of many stories, with 
suggestions as to their grading, see " A List of Character- 
Building Stories," pages 263 to 277, in ** A Manual of 
Stories," by Forbush. 

2. For a comprehensive graded Hst of stories, see 
pages 270 to 296, in " Story-Telling for Upper Grade 
Teachers," by Cross and Statler. 

3. Select five stories for grading, indicating where they 
belong, and giving your reasons. 



I 



CHAPTER IX 
TESTING AND STUDYING STORIES 

There are two individuals involved in the telling of a 
story, namely, the story-teller and the listener, and the 
success of the story-teller is determined by the reaction, 
or response, of the listener. And there is likely to be a 
more satisfactory response if the story-teller will make 
it a practice carefully to study his stories before telling 
them. 

TESTING THE STORY 

1. Story-telling Must Give Pleasure 

Generally speaking, in order to be effective, story-tell- 
ing must be liked, enjoyed. The youngest listener will 
say, " Tell it again." One a little older will say, " Tell 
another story." One still older may join with others 
in hand-clapping. 

During the telling of a story, the listener will indicate 
his interest by an attitude of attention. He will be look- 
ing at the story-teller, unconsciously imitating his facial 
expressions, and nodding or shaking the head. There 
will be a lighting up of the face, laughing, crying, leaning 
forward, sitting still, etc., according to the age of the 
listener and the nature of the story. 

On the other hand, it should be said that the mere 
fact that the listener liked the story is not evidence of 
the success of the story, for his pleasure may have been 

87 



88 Story-Telling Lessons 

due to the form of the story or to excellence in its tell- 
ing rather than to its teaching value for him. 

Also it is true that a story may be effective, and that 
it may be enjoyed as a whole, and at the same time 
evoke unpleasant feelings. It may evoke the emotion 
of fear, it may arouse concern for a story-character, and 
it may cause him to " feel bad " because of something 
he has done. 

2. Story-telling Must Evoke Thought 

In listening to a good story, well told, the listener will 
perceive, imagine, remember, judge, and reason. He is 
not a mere spectator, but rather a participator. That is, 
he is giving attention and is doing some purposive think- 
ing. The stream of consciousness is focused upon the 
story with favorable reactions. 

Frequently, the listener identifies himself with one of 
the individuals of the story. Sometimes he will come to 
a very definite conclusion, and he may want to give ex- 
pression to the same. He should be encouraged in this, 
and should be given helpful direction. He may desire to 
ask questions, after the story is done, and his questions 
should be heard and answered sympathetically and tact- 
fully. 

In some cases, after he has told a story, the story- 
teller may ask vital questions which will evoke real self- 
expression on the part of the listener, but any ques- 
tion designed to test the listener's memory with regard 
to some event in the story will serve to magnify the in- 
cidental and to minify the essential. 

The youngest listeners cannot describe their mental 
processes or give expression to their emotions, and it is 



Testing and Studying Stories 89 

not wise to ask them questions, usually. If they appear 
interested during the telling of the story, you may be 
sure that they have been thinking. One way to test 
the thinking of the listener is through properly super- 
vised handwork. On examination of the handwork, 
wrong impressions may be corrected. 

3. Story-telling Must Develop Attitudes 

Another test of story-telling is that it develops or 
strengthens right attitudes in the listener. It helps him 
into proper senses of values. It causes him to like and 
want the good, and to dislike and turn from the bad. 
It develops in him an appreciation of the good, the true, 
the noble, the better, the divine, the spiritual, the beau- 
tiful, the upHfting. 

Incidentally, good story-telling will tend to develop in 
the listener an appreciation of stories, but we must be 
on our guard, in dealing with children, against conclud- 
ing that certain stories are good for them because they 
** like " them. Their liking of a story may be due to 
some type of action in it or to the fact that they have 
been taught to like it, and not because it is vitally help- 
ful. We must give them such stories as will best develop 
in them the best attitudes and appreciations, giving but 
little consideration to any expressions of preference. 

4. Story-telling Must Improve Behavior 

Through the skilful presentation of true ideals of life 
and conduct, the listener is assisted in forming right 
ideals of conduct for himself, and in realizing these in 
his life. Some change for the better takes place in the 
listener, as in the case of the little girl who, after she 



90 Story -Telling Lessons 

has heard a story, said, " Mamma, I was a good Samar- 
itan today." 

There are two ways of obtaining data with reference 
to changes in the listener's conduct, namely, from the 
listener himself and from others about him. In the case 
of students in the elementary grades, there may be re- 
ports in class of week-day activities, and the parents may 
be induced to keep records and to make reports. 

In the case of older students, reports from others 
sometimes are obtainable, and it is possible to get them 
to report on themselves, privately and in class. Occa- 
sionally it might be well to ask them to write out, in class, 
without signing their names, answers to such questions 
as the following; " Have your thinking and conduct been 
changed in any way by any story you have heard re- 
cently? Give name of story and indicate exactly in what 
way it has influenced you." 

5. Story-telling May be Reproduced 

After having heard the story, the listener may tell the 
story back to the story-teller and to others, may draw or 
mold a likeness of some object, individual, event, or im- 
pression of the story, may participate in a discussion of 
the purpose of the story, may tell another story sug- 
gested by the one he has just heard, or may assist in 
playing, or dramatizing, the story, according to age and 
circumstances. 

In the dramatizing of stories the following sugges- 
tions may be kept in mind: (1) Let the students choose 
their own parts, with some tactful direction. (2) Let 
the students work out their own dramatization with a 
minimum of suggestion on the part of the teacher. (3) 



I 



Testing and Studying Stories 91 

Use costumes and scenery or not, according to place and 
circumstances, but usually it is better to let the imagina- 
tion furnish these. (4) Train all students to speak dis- 
tinctly and with proper modulation, and to impersonate 
freely. (5) After a dramatization, criticize sympatheti- 
cally and constructively, and then repeat the drama- 
tization, immediately or at a later time. (6) Outdoor 
dramatizations occasionally are practicable and advisable. 
(7) Almost any story may be profitably dramatized by 
students of almost any age. 

Miss Elizabeth Erwin Miller, in her excellent book, 
" The Dramatization of Bible Stories," gives the follow- 
ing suggestive summary of the mode of procedure in de- 
veloping a dramatization: "(1) Select a story with care; 
then adapt it for telling. (2) Tell the story, emphasizing 
the essential parts. (3) Let the children divide the story 
into pictures or scenes. (4) Have a discussion of what 
should take place in each scene. (5) Let volunteers from 
among the children act out one scene as they think it 
should be done, using their own words. (6) Develop 
criticism by the other children with suggestions for im- 
provement. (7) Have a second acting of the scene for 
improvement. (8) Let each of the other scenes be 
worked out in the same manner. (9) See that every 
child has the chance to try out many parts. (10) Play 
the story through many times. Change it often according 
to the criticism, until the children recognize the result as 
a product of their best effort." 

6. Story-telling May be Followed by Quiet 

Sometimes it is well if the listener can be perfectly 
quiet for a moment after having heard a story, and, in 



92 Story-Telling Lessons 

the Sunday school, there might be a moment of silent 
prayer, followed by a sentence of uttered prayer or a 
stanza of an appropriate song. A group of students 
might be most helpfully dismissed with a story. 

7. Story-telling Must be Trusted and Given Time 

Probably the best results of story-telling can never be 
tabulated. The story does its work so subtly and un- 
obtrusively as to make testing exceedingly difficult, and 
the story-teller must learn to trust the story and himself 
and the listeners. 

If the story-teller has mastered the principles con- 
tained in this book, and is an alert and continuous stu- 
dent, and a faithful worker, he may rest assured that his 
story-telling will stand the test of time and eternity, and 
that it will produce the incomparable results of the one 
best method of teaching. 

STUDYING THE STORY 

Of course the listener will not analyze the story. He 
will only listen to it, and enjoy it, and image it, and feel 
it, and do it, without being conscious of its effect, and 
without knowing the why or the how of the process. But 
the story will fall short of its best effect unless the 
story-teller analyzes, criticizes, and organizes his mate- 
rials. 

1. Some Principles Involved 

The story-teller should ask himself a number of ques- 
tions about his story, in order that he may proceed with 
intelligence and conviction. 



Testing and Studying Stories 93 

(1) What Grade? 

In story-telling, as in all teaching, we begin with the 
student and not with the story. The story must fit into 
the interests and needs of the students, else it cannot 
be used, for the only reason for using the story at all is 
the student. 

In the light of the principles set forth in Chapter 
VIII, combined with his knowledge of his students, 
the story-teller must determine whether or not the 
story under consideration is usable. 

(2) What Teaching? 

Definitely, just what does this story teach? If it does 
not teach anything, then it is not a story, and I cannot 
use it. Is this a true story, in the sense in which the 
story is defined in Chapter VI ? 

If so, then what is its teaching, its lesson, its moral, its 
truth? And just how may it be stated? It may be well 
to write out several possible statements, finally deciding 
on one word as indicating in general the teaching and 
then on a more full and complete statement. 

(3) What Type? 

This particular story must belong to one of the seven 
types as defined in Chapter VII, else that classification 
is not complete and scientific. A little practice will de- 
velop skill in classification on the part of the story- 
teller, and this will be a distinct aid to effectiveness. 

Of course the determination of the grade, the teaching 
and the type of the story cannot be regarded as three 
successive steps, but rather as the three phases of a 



94 Story 'Telling Lessons 

single process, for each is closely related to and is depen- 
dent on the other two. 

(4) What Events? 

What events are there in this story, and what may 
they be named? Where does the first event begin and 
end ? So with the second event, and on through. 

It will be well, indeed, for the story-teller's sole benefit, 
of course, to number and name the events, giving to each 
a concise, significant designation, in accordance with the 
principles discussed in Chapter V. Involved in this 
process, is the determination of the number of the events 
and their arrangement in effective order. 

(5) What Beginning? 

Has this story a good beginning ? Why ? Does it con- 
form to the principles as enunciated in Chapter V? 
Will it accompHsh its purpose? Is it brief enough? 
What of its contents and its form? 

(6) What Ending? 

Does the ending of this story conform to the principles 
set forth in Chapter V ? Is it sufficiently brief ? Does 
it explain or moralize? Does it add anything to the 
story? Does it measurably satisfy present curiosity? 

(7) What Form? 

Does the form of this story conform to the standard 
of Chapter IV? Does it measure up to the standard of 
action and movement? Does it employ familiar terms? 
Does it omit unnecessary words and phrases? Is it 
simple in its language constructions? Is there any place 



I 



Testing and Studying Stories 95 

here for purposeful repetition? Is there sufficient defi- 
niteness ? 

Does it measure up to the standard of direct rather 
than indirect discourse? Does it make a strong appeal 
to the imagination, presenting the teaching as indirect 
suggestion, relieving the story-teller sufficiently of re- 
sponsibility ? 

Does it measure up to the standard in the omission 
of all questions and in moving forward rapidly and 
smoothly ? ^ 

(8) What Impersonation? 

How may I best carry out, in this story, the suggestions 
of Chapter III? Just which character may I attempt 
to represent, and what characteristic may I imitate? 
What place is there here for the expression of emotion? 

(9) What Gesture? 

Just where, in this story, might gesture be particu- 
larly helpful, and what type of gesture would be suitable? 
How may I so use gesture as to conform to the principles 
as set forth in Chapter III? 

(10) What Expression? 

For what expressional activity on the part of the 
student would it be advisable to plan in connection with 
this story? After I shall have told the story, ought I 
to plan to ask questions or to encourage the student 
to ask questions? 

Or ought I to plan for handwork of some kind that 
will deepen and test impression ? Or ought I to plan for 
dramatization? Perhaps I shall decide to do both. It 



96 Story •Telling Lessons 

will depend on my group of students and my equipment, 
and on what expressional work we have had recently. I 
shall try to keep in mind the importance of varying the 
method of securing self-expression on the part of the 
students. 

READING AND DISCUSSION 

1. Make a careful study of at least ten good stories. 

2. " Try out " a story on an individual or a group of 
individuals, making notes for yourself of any favorable 
or unfavorable reactions. 

3. Listen to the conversation of a group of children 
after a story-telling period, and note any significant ex- 
pressions. 

4. Talk with the parents of children and make definite 
effort to discover some indications of the effects of story- 
telling. 

5. Occasionally ask the listeners, if old enough, to write 
statements answering some such questions as follows: 
" What do you like best about this story, and why ? Do 
you think this boy did right, and why? What would you 
have done if you had been in his place? '* 



II 



CHAPTER X 

CLASSIFYING STORIES 

The student who would excel in story-telling should 
make a careful, detailed study of at least ten good stories, 
as suggested in the preceding chapter, with written anal- 
yses, until he is sure that he has mastered a method of 
applying the principles set forth in this book, and he 
should make for himself an eyer-growing, annotated list 
of classified stories. 

EXAMPLES OF ANALYZING 

For purposes of illustration, as indicating a method 
of studying and analyzing, we may take two of the 
stories used in this book. 

I, How Jane Learned to Tell Stories 

The story in Chapter I of the student who felt that 
she never could learn to tell stories, but who did learn, 
may be analyzed as follows: (1) Grade. Best adapted 
to students from about sixteen to twenty-five years of 
age. (2) Teaching. Teaches story-telling — story-telling 
artistry may be acquired through a study of the principles 
and through practice. (3) Type. It is a history-story, 
the events being literally true. (4) Events, The events 
may be named as follows : First, her first attempt and fail- 
ure; second, her second failure; third, her determina- 
tion to quit trying; fourth, her gradual improvement; 

97 



98 Story-Telling Lessons 

fifth, her signal success. (5) Beginning, The beginning 
is the first sentence. It is short, it indicates the leading 
character, it names the place, and it suggests an atmos- 
phere. It is simple and out of the ordinary, and likely 
would get attention. (6) Ending. The ending is the last 
sentence. It is short, it is in direct discourse, and it 
leaves the conclusion to the listener. (7) Form. It is 
simple in its language constructions, abounds in direct 
discourse, and the action is rapid. This story would be 
better if it were a little longer and took more time to 
show more, and told less. (8) Impersonation. Imper- 
sonate the student, showing the discouragement in, " Oh, 
I can't do it. I just can't tell a story." Show the dif- 
ferent attitude in, " I can try it." Impersonate the other 
students in the words of commendation, in the climax. 
(9) Gesture. Indicate by gesture the reaching for the 
newspaper clipping by the student, and the handing of it 
to her by the teacher. Other places for gesture in the 
story >vill suggest themselves. (10) Expression. This 
is not the type of story that calls for handwork, or for 
dramatization, but for class discussion. 

2. Mr. Sunday School and the Doctor 

This story, found in Chapter VII, may be analyzed 
as follows; (1) Grading. It is best adapted to adults, 
and to a special class of adults, namely, Sunday school 
workers. (2) Teaching. It teaches religious education — 
training for Sunday school work. (3) Type. It is a 
modern allegory-story. (4) Events. The events may be 
named as follows: First, wife recommends Doctor Spe- 
cialist ; second, Mr. Sunday School's first attempt to cure 
himself; third, second attempt to cure himself; fourth, 



Classifying Stories 99 



third attempt to cure himself; fifth, fourth attempt to 
cure himself ; sixth, fifth attempt to cure himself ; seventh, 
sixth attempt to cure himself ; eighth, the doctor's diag- 
nosis and prescription; ninth, the cure. (5) Beginning. 
The beginning is " Mr. Sunday School was sick." The 
character is named, and both the place and an atmosphere 
are suggested. (6) Ending. The ending is the last sen- 
tence, in direct discourse. It is brief, and simply brings 
the story to a close, without any addition or distraction. 
(7) Form, The language constructions are simple, there 
is plenty of direct discourse, there are no unnecessary 
words or phrases, and the action is swift. (8) Imper- 
sonation. Impersonate both Mr. Sunday School and 
wife, all the way through, and also the doctor. (9) Ges- 
ture. Imitate the using of the telephone. Express Mr. 
Sunday School's pain and grouchiness. (10) Expression. 
This story has been dramatized, and also has been worked 
into a pageant. 

SUGGESTIONS AS TO LISTS 

No conscientious student of story-telling can afford 
to take at their face value the published lists of stories. 
He may accept these gratefully as suggestions, but should 
make his own card-file list. The list which follows is 
but briefly suggestive of a method of list-making. 

1. Cradle Roll Period, Ages about Two and Three 
(1) Appreciation 

*' The Golden Cobwebs," fairy-story, teaching interest 
in the Christmas tree. Telling-time, about four minutes. 
Found in " World Stones Retold." 



100 Story-Telling Lessons 

(2) Helpfulness 

" The Old Woman and Her Pig," fable-story, teaching 
that it pays to help others. Telling-time, about three min- 
utes. Found in " For the Children's Hour." 

(3) Kindness 

" Baby Ray's Bedtime," fable-story, teaching that it 
pays to be kind to pets. Telling-time, about three min- 
utes. Found in " For the Children's Hour." 

(4) Meddlesomeness 

" Goldilocks and the Three Bears," fable-story, teach- 
ing that it does not pay to meddle with the possessions of 
others. Telling-time, about three minutes. Found in 
" World Stories Retold." 

(5) Obedience 

" Raggylug," fable-story, teaching that it pays to mind 
mother. Telling-time, about three minutes. Found in 
" For the Children's Hour." 

2. Beginners' Period, Ages about Four and Five 

(1) Cleanliness 

" The Pig Brother," fairy-story, teaching that it pays 
to be clean and neat. Telling-time, about five minutes. 
Found in " For the Children's Hour." 

(2) Contentment 

" The Runaway Pancake," fable-story, teaching that it 
does not pay to run away from home and duty. Tell- 



Classifying Stories 101 

ing-time, about three minutes. Found in " World Stories 
Retold.'* 

" The Gingerbread Boy," fable-story, teaching that it 
does not pay to run away from home and duty. Teliing- 
time, about five minutes. Found in " For the Children's 
Hour." 

" Tale of the Littlest Mouse/* fable-story, teaching 
that comfort in safety is better than luxury in fear. Tell- 
ing-time, about ten minutes. Found in " For the Chil- 
dren's Hour." 

(3) Credulity 

" Why the Bear has a Stumpy Tail," fable-story, teach- 
ing that it does not pay to believe everything others say. 
Telling-time, about one minute. Found in " World 
Stories Retold.'* 

3. Primary Period, Ages about Six to Eight 

(1) Appreciation 

" The Journey of a Drop o£ Water," fable-story, teach- 
ing that even a little drop of water has great value. 
Telling-time, about three minutes. Found in "Worth 
While Stories for Every Day." 

(2) Avarice 

" Midas and the Golden Touch,'* fairy-story, teaching 
that it does not pay to give money the first place in life. 
Telling-time, about five minutes. Found in "World 
Stories Retold.'* 

(3) Cleanliness 

" Tom, the Water Baby," fairy-story, teaching that un- 
tidiness makes one unattractive to others. Telling-time, 



102 Story-Telling Lessons 

about twelve minutes. Found in " For the Children's 
Hour." 

4. Junior Period, Ages about Nine to Eleven 

(1) Ambition 

" The Log Cabin Boy, Abraham Lincoln," history- 
story, teaching that hard work makes dreams come true. 
Telling-time, about ten minutes. Found in " For the 
Children's Hour, Book Three." 

(2) Christianity 

" St. George and the Dragon," legend-story, teaching 
that the true Christian possesses the power that van- 
quishes evil. Telling-time, about seven minutes. Found 
in " World Stories Retold." 

(3) Common Sense 

" Foolish Fred," parable-story, teaching that those who 
do not use common sense likely will get into trouble. 
Telling-time, about four minutes. Found in " Worth 
While Stories for Every Day." 

5. Intermediate Period, Ages about Twelve to Four- 

teen 

(1) Filial Love 

" The Girl Who Saved Her Father, Prascovia," his- 
tory-story, teaching that true love for parents may in- 
volve heroic sacrifice. Telling-time, about twelve min- 
utes. Found in " For the Children's Hour. Book Three." 



Classifying Stories 103 



(2) Friendship 

" Damon and Pythias," legend-story, teaching that 
there is great power in unselfish friendship. Telling-time, 
about three minutes. Found in " Worth While Stories 
for Every Day." 

(3) Generosity 

" Why the Chimes Rang," parable-story, teaching that 
the chief thing in any giving is the attitude of the giver. 
Telling-time, about fifteen minutes. Alden. 

6. Senior Period, Ages about Fifteen to Seventeen 

(1) Ambition 

" The Boy Who Wanted to be a School Teacher, An- 
tonio Canova," history-story, teaching that initiative in 
making the most of an opportunity may lead to the real- 
ization of a worthy ambition. Telling-time, about six 
minutes. Found in " For the Children's Hour, Book 
Three." 

(2) Appreciation 

" The Great Stone Face," parable-story, teaching that 
we tend to become like that which we value most. Tell- 
ing-time, about five minutes. Found in " World Stories 
Retold." 

(3) Industry 

" The Jew's Tale," legend-story, teaching that suc- 
cess is attained by unceasing toil, and not by magic. 
Telling-time, about ten minutes. Found in " World 
Stories Retold." 



104 Story-Telling Lessons 



7. Young People's Period^ Ages about Eighteen to 
Twenty-four 

(1) Marriage 

" Ruth and Boaz," history-story, teaching that court- 
ship and marriage are of fundamental importance in 
the building of a nation. Telling-time, about fifteen min- 
utes. Found in the Bible. 

(2) Parenthood 

" Cornelia and Her Jewels," history-story, teaching that 
children are of supreme value in the home and in society. 
Telling-time, about seven minutes. Found in ** World 
Stories Retold." 

(3) Service 

Tolstoy's " Martin the Cobbler," parable-story, teach- 
ing that Christ seems nearest to those who best serve 
their fellow-beings. Telling-time, about ten minutes. 
Found in " World Stories Retold." 

READING AND DISCUSSION 

1. Analyze and re-Hst five of the stories listed in "A 
Manual of Stories," by Forbush. 

2. Analyze and re-list five of the stories in " Story 
Telling for Upper Grade Teachers," by Cross and Statler. 

3. Analyze and re-list five stories hsted in some other 
book. 

4. State your chief difficulty in analyzing and listing a 
story. 

5. Give five reasons for analyzing and listing stories. 



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